Week Two:
Grammar:Describing Emotions (Verb+preposition)
CONTENT:
CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS WITH A VARIABLE
PREPOSITION
1. Adjectives
The two examples given above (sorry, concerned) fall into this category. The category as a whole tends, like them, to express emotions, e.g. happy, glad, pleased, delighted (all with about/for/ with ), angry, annoyed, furious, upset, disappointed (all with about/ with ) and anxious, embarrassed (both with about/for ). However, there are also emotion adjectives with only one
preposition: surprised, amazed and shocked (all at), interested (in ), bored and satisfied ( with ) and worried ( about) (as passive participles these can also have by to show an action instead of a
state – see 66. Variable Meanings of Passive Verbs – but this more grammatical use is not a “partner” preposition in the same sense).
When the preposition is variable, about is usually needed with an
existing situation. For example, one could be happy (or angry,
concerned, embarrassed etc.) about the performance of a football
team. Even the use of about before a person directs attention to
a situation involving them rather than to them as people. A rare alternative to about is at.
With after positive adjectives like happy also introducessituations, but usually when the meaning is “having” rather than “seeing”. Thus one could be happy with one’s own job and happy about another person’s. However, after negative adjectives such as angry , with must instead be followed by a living cause of the emotion (e.g. angry with the government ).
For usually goes with living things. After positive adjectives like happy , it shows the speaker’s satisfaction with the good fortune of whoever is being mentioned. For example, if one is happy for a newly-wed couple, one is happy that they have achieved?
something nice. Contrast this with happy about them, which merely shows approval of their situation, regardless of whether it is good or bad. On the other hand, after negative adjectives for seems to have a future reference: being concerned for refugees expresses a fear that something bad might happen to them, while concerned about suggests that something bad has already happened.
Other adjectives with alternative prepositions include good (at/ to/for), disgusted (at/with) and responsible (to/for) .
2. Nouns: Some nouns have a partner preposition in front of them, e.g. on an occasion , while others have it after, e.g. a limit on … (see 111. Words with their Own Preposition). Variable prepositions, however, seem mainly to be of the kind that follow their noun. A few examples are mentioned elsewhere within this blog in the post 78. Infinitive versus Preposition after Nouns .
In some cases, the variability of a preposition makes a contrast between all and some of something. Consider the noun news .
News of an event means that the event – all of it – is the news,
whereas news about it means that the event is already known about, and the news is additional information, i.e. a part of it.
Other nouns like this include ignorance, knowledge, a question, an idea, a report and a statement . Sometimes one finds on instead of about, especially after a report .
Slightly different is a theory of/about . Of suggests a much more intricate theory than about . Thus a theory of gravity is a proper scientific theory attempting to explain every aspect, whereas a theory about gravity is more like a single general belief about it.
The noun difficulty uses of before the name of the difficulty (the difficulty of curing cancer), but with before something possessing it, e.g.:
(a) The difficulty with children is that they need supervision.
The same is true of a problem . However, trouble always has with , and advantage, benefit, pleasure and value , whilst combining with of in the same way as above, combine with something possessing them by means of in , usually after there is – e.g.
there is an advantage in …
A different type of noun with a variable preposition is of the kind derived from verb. The variability arises if the noun is able to express two different
meanings, one an action and one not. For example, the noun receipt, which is derived from RECEIVE, can mean either “receiving” or “something written to acknowledge a purchase”. With such nouns, it is usually found that the action meaning is followed by of ( receipt of visitors ), the other meaning by another preposition ( a receipt for goods ).
Slightly different is the action noun an increase, which shows what increases with a following of or in , regardless of whether or not an action is being expressed. The difference is in the cause of the increase of indicates an external agent, in does not. Thus, an increase of taxes is something brought about by an agency such as a government, while an increase in taxes is vague about agency – taxes might even have increased by themselves. The former corresponds to taxes are/were increased , the latter to taxes increase(d) .
The same contrast affects various synonyms and antonyms of increase, provided they have a related verb like INCREASE which can be used both with and without an object (see 4. Verbs that Don’t Have to be Passive 1 ). They include acceleration, expansion, improvement, intensification, cut, decrease, diminution and reduction .
A special use is found with cost and its opposite value . If we wish to say what possesses a cost/value, the preposition is of (e.g. the cost of inflation ). On the other hand, the sufferer of the cost needs to (the cost to the government ). This use of to is similar to that with indirect objects (Verbs with an Indirect Object).
Finally, a word has to be said about research, which can be followed by in, into or on . The first of these seems normally to show the broad subject area involved (e.g. research in biology ).
The other two often seem interchangeable, though perhaps into shows a more precise object of research (e.g. research on primates/into primate intelligence ). It is important to remember
that the related verb RESEARCH is not followed by any preposition at all (Unnecessary Prepositions ).
3. Verbs
Verbs with a partner preposition tend to be called “prepositional”. They are not to be confused with “phrasal” verbs (Phrasal Verbs). Sometimes their meaning changes if the preposition is dropped ( Troublesome Prepositional Verbs). Sometimes, though, meaning changes are linked with different prepositions. The following are of interest:
AGREE with/on/to
APPLY for/to
ASK about/for
CARE for/about
FALL for/over
FEEL for/like
GET into/on/off/over
GO into/over/through/with
HEAR about/of
LEARN about/of
LISTEN for/to
LIVE for/in/through
LOOK at/after/for/round
REPORT on/to
PLAY with/at/for/on
SEE about/throug
Literature in English:
Topic: Poetry
Content:
THE ELEMENTS of POETRY
Poetry, as man’s inherited possession, is the expression of strong feeling and thought which leads to a communion between the individual and his surroundings, but most usually between a person and nature, the world, or the universe. Poetry is the means of universalizing and perpetuating a thought, an idea, a feeling, sensation, or internal experience.
FORM
Whenever we look at a poem, the first thing we will probably notice is its form. In other words, poems have a given FORM. One poem will look very different from another, and still another poem will look very distinct from the second one, and so on. Each poet uses the “form” which will most effectively EXPRESS what he wants to convey to other human beings.
Traditional poetry used to follow very strict forms. People whostill follow these forms nowadays are following the traditional manner and style. But nowadays we know that there is a strong tendency to break from the traditional and to become even very unorthodox, unconventional or even unusual. This kind of poetry is called FREE VERSE. It is most often used in modern times and presents a multitude of possibilities. The poet uses free form to make the poem fit the contents and to express the mood or feeling of his work.
LINES
After looking at a poem and seeing that it has some sort of FORM, we often notice that it also consists of LINES. These are the vehicle of the authors thoughts and ideas. These are the building blocks with which to create a poem. The WORDS of each line
proceed as usual from left to right, but they curiously end where the poet wants them to stop. Therefore, you may have some lines that are of equal length and others which are not. Besides the length and margining of the first word in each line, the PUNCTUATION at the end of each is also a major tool for the poet. At times he will want us to make a full stop, other times a gentle or slight pause, and even others perhaps a sudden break, and so on. Ultimately, then, poetry creates sensations, moods, and images in the reader’s mind.
STANZAS
The lines in a poem are most often divided into sections lookingas some sort of paragraphing. These we call STANZAS. A stanza, therefore, is the grouping of the lines, sort of like a paragraph.
RHYME
Rhyme is the SONIC imitation usually of end syllables of words. There are basically two kinds of rhyme used in poetry. The first is the most typical and best known by young people, END RHYME, in which the words at the end of a given line rhyme. The second kind of rhyme is called INTERNAL RHYME. This kind of rhyming is different from end rhyme in that the rhyming takes place somewhere within the line and not at the end. But most of us find it more natural to use rhyming at the end and not in the middle of our poem’s lines. Still, the most widely read and enjoyed poetry artfully combines these and other patterns and techniques for the creation of the poems.(Internal Rhyme): It won’t be LONG before my SONG ends the day, And the FLOWERS near the TOWERS reach the sky.
PATTERN:
Rhyme contributes in creating a pattern when read appropriately. It creates a special effect which results in being pleasant and motivating. Humans in general are susceptible to patterns. As a matter of fact, we live with all sorts of patterns every day of our lives. Our very lives are patterns themselves. The human mind itself has an inherent (internal) patterning force and capacity which allows the individual to perceive and create the patterns inherent in poems. And it is rhyme which is one of the contributors to the pattern created in reading or writing a poem:
SQUEEZE … TEASE;
RUN … FUN;
DEMONSTRATE … WHAT SHE ATE.
Another contributor to pattern is the number of syllables, as can be seen in the third set of the examples given right above. DE- MONS-TRATE as imitated by WHAT-SHE-ATE. Still another
element which contributes to pattern is the accomodation and distribution of the lines. The reader is thus led or even forced into following a given pattern, and BEAT. But the ultimate creator of pattern is the combination of the STRESSED SYLLABLES IN ANY PARTICULAR LINE of a poem.
RHYTHM
This brings us to the topic of RHYTHM, perhaps the pivot point ofall the elements, because it is rhythm which creates the pleasant gliding effect when we read a poem. It helps us as readers to travel along the lines of the poem with a certain enjoyable tempo created by the components of rhythm.
Never in my lonely life,
Could you make it — be my wife.
or,
If only then she had seen,
That crime and anger were to have been.
The length of the lines are different, but it is the combination that creates a certain rhythm. Now, if the poet just repeats the same pattern with every set of lines in a stanza, and from stanza to stanza, then he will be effectively creating a rhythm. It is the REGULARITY of the
REPETITION that tends to create the rhythmical pattern. A BEAT is created when we analyze the STRESSED and UNSTRESSED SYLLABLES within the lines of a poem. Observe the following lines from a poem:
And as she WALKED to the MOON,
We could ALL hear her SWOON,
To the MARvelous SIGHTS,
In which she NOW so deLIGHTS,
EUPHONY
EUPHONY is simply the combination of agreeable and melodious sounds which make a poem pleasant to listen to. It is the nice- sounding tone of a poem when read. This is the reason why a poem is never as effective as when read aloud — simply because poetry in general deals a lot with the euphonic sounds contained within it. EUPHONY is perhaps one ultimate aim of poetry. The esthete — the beautiful. It is poetry which allows mankind to express such beauty from within. Poetry itself is beauty created.
POETIC DEVICES
Poetry, like every other art, has its techniques and DEVICES. Becoming a poet liked by others is not always an easy thing to do, and it so happens that the cause of this is the way the author of a poem uses the available devices to his advantage or purposes.
Below are some of the major devices used in many of the poems we encounter as students of poetry.
1.- ALLITERATION: The purposeful repetition of a consonant sound in two or more consecutive words, usually at the beginning of such words.
2.- REPETITION: a) of WORDS/ IDEAS/ or, IMAGES; b) ANAPHORA:
The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive lines or stanzas.
Tomorrow when the sun comes out,
Tomorrow when the birds sing out,
Tomorrow it will come to be,
Tomorrow, when you’ll come to me.
c) ANADIPLOSIS: The repetition of a word or phrase at the end of one line and at the beginning of the next; or, at the end of the last line in a stanza or verse, and at the beginning of the next stanza.
She will never come to this my land,
To this my land where I belong.
3.- ONOMATOPOEIA: The use of words which imitate the sounds they stand for.
4.- INVERSION: a) ANASTROPHE: To the sea she went,
Without smiling they parted,
b) HYSTERON-PROTERON (the last first):
Then came the thunder.
Out she went.
Fear she felt.
5. FIGURES OF SPEECH:
a) SIMILE
b) METAPHOR
c) PERSONIFICATION
d) HYPERBOLE
e) UNDERSTATEMENT
6.- IMAGERY:
The use of language, sensory language, language which stimulates the reader’s imagination. The use of the sensory language which serves to transmit or invoke the same or similar images in the reader’s mind.
7.- VARIETY: The use of variety in length of lines, rhythm, rhyme, distribution of lines and words, and anything else which adds to the EFFECTIVENESS of the poem. Variety may be used to create humor, depression, or many other moods or sensations. The effective poet learns to use variety whenever and wherever it serves his purposes of expression and externalization of internal experiences.
TYPES OF POETRY
° BALLAD
° LIMERICK
° FREE VERSE
° NARRATIVE
° LYRIC/DESCRIPTIVE
° HUMOROUS
I. NARRATIVE: There are many kinds or types of poems. Some describe what the poets see; some what they remember; and others what they perceive through other senses. But other poems are intended to tell a story. These are called NARRATIVE POEMS. Just like the
regular stories which you read in your literature courses, a narrative poem also has the same basic elements. It has a setting, one or more characters in it, usually a conflict, a plot which builds up to a climax, and even a conclusion, oftentimes. The story which the narrative poem tells can also be about almost anything.
II. LYRIC/DESCRIPTIVE:
LYRIC poetry, also called DESCRIPTIVE poetry, is a very personal kind of poetry. It is usually brief, melodic, and very expressive. It is descriptive in essence, and conveys IMPRESSIONS, FEELINGS, EMOTIONS, SENSATIONS, and very personal and INTIMATE VIEWS concerning an experience. Lyric or Descriptive poetry may touch such themes as: nature, beauty, love and friendship, the joy of life, death, patriotism, and the like.
III. HUMOROUS:
It is probable that you, as student of literature, have never really stopped to think how versatile poetry is. But it is because poetry is so FLEXIBLE, so PLASTIC, that there are so many varieties of poetry in the world or nation. The plasticity of poetry makes it possible therefore for author’s to bend and shape this kind of written expression to suit their needs or purposes. It is no wonder then that some poets should choose HUMOR as their main purpose in writing a poem.
I. LIMERICK : A LIMERICK is a special type of poem intended to be humorous. It consists of five lines only. It is usually a nonsense verse which often concerns something ridiculous. But even so, it follows a regular and distinctive pattern. Of the five lines, the FIRST, SECOND, and FIFTH lines have the same length. Each one of these contains NINE SYLLABLES, … and they RHYME. The THIRD and FOURTH lines, which are shorter, contain only FIVE syllables, and they too rhyme. Also, these third and fourth lines are slightly dented — that is, they are indented by three letters. Following is an example.
There once was a pretty young girl Who had pretty teeth like a pearl, But her fortune did change, When her mom dis-ar-ranged, The nice girl, and her teeth and a curl. This limerick form probably originated in the old town of Limerick in Ireland, and thus borrowed the name from it. But limericks are just for fun and laughter. Here is another example.
A puppy whose hair was so flowing,
There really was no means of knowing
Which end was his head,
Once stopped me and said,
“Please, sir, am I coming or going?”
III. BALLAD
One of the oldest types of poetry is a special kind of Narrative poem known as the BALLAD. The Ballad tells a story and happens to be quite lengthy. As a rule, a Ballad is concerned with a sharp CONFLICT and with deep HUMAN EMOTION. Once in a great while, though, a ballad here and there will deal with the funnier side of life. But, as a rule ballads dealt with love, honor, courage, and death. Characteristics of a Ballad include the following.
1) They usually involve the common people (although there are some about nobles, too).
2) They usually deal with physical courage and tragic love.
3) They contain little characterization or description.
4) The action in ballads usually moves forward through dialogue.
5) Much of the story is IMPLIED or suggested, forcing the listener to fill in the details.
6) They tell the story in ballad stanzas.
The BALLAD STANZA contains FOUR LINES. The FOURTH line rhymes with the SECOND. The FIRST and THIRD lines usually have FOUR ACCENTED SYLLABLES while the SECOND and FOURTH have THREE each.
BALLAD RHYTHM: Lines 1/3 = 4 BEATS; Lines 2/4 = 3 BEATS.
Come LISten to ME,
you GALlants so FREE,
All YOU that love MIRTH for to HEAR,
And I will you TELL of a BOLD outLAW,
That LIVED in NOTtinghamSHIRE.
As ROBin Hood IN the FORest STOOD,
All UNder the GREENwood TREE,
There WAS he WARE of a BRAVE young MAN,
As FINE as FINE can BE.
[Note: The capitalized syllables are stressed.]
[These stressed syllables create the BEATS.]
IV. FREE VERSE:
The poet uses free form to make the poem fit the contents and to express the mood or feeling of his intentions or purposes. The length of the lines is irregular, the indentation of the lines may also vary from one to the next, it does use rhythm, but it seldom uses end rhyme nor regular stanzas. Capitalization of the first letter in each line and proper nouns is unorthodox or conveniently changed. Punctuation is equally affected, and the distribution of the lines and words is entirely in the hands of the writer. Most poetry we read today, therefore, is Free Verse
Speech Work: SPEECH WORK: VOWEL /Ә/
CONTENT:- This sound is a neutral vowel. It is used to represent the weak form of other vowel sound.
Why the schwa is the most common sound
In stress-timed languages such as English, stresses occur at regular intervals. The words which are most important for communication of the message, that is, nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs, are normally stressed in connected speech. Grammar words such as auxiliary verbs, pronouns, articles, linkers and prepositions are not usually stressed, and are reduced to keep the stress pattern regular. This means that they are said faster and at a lower volume than stressed syllables, and the vowel sounds lose their purity, often becoming a schwa. The first is with every word stressed and the second is faster and more natural with vowels being reduced. The same thing happens with individual words. While stressed syllables maintain the full vowel sound, unstressed syllables are weakened. For example, the letters in bold in the following words can all be pronounced with a schwa (depending on the speaker’s accent): support, b a nana , button, exc e ll e nt, exper i ment, col our , sist er , pict ure . It is also used when a sound is a combination of a vowel and a consonant e.g water /wᴐ:tӘ/ The vowel is a short version of the /ӡ:/ sound (vowel number eleven). One peculiar feature of this vowel is that it is always found in unstressed syllables. That is, it never has any stress wherever of occurs.
Examples are: – common spelling of /Ә/ sound (i) initial position e.g. agree, about, alone (ii) middle position e.g. comfort, contain, column
(iii) final position e.g. measure, Africa, sailor
EVALUATION: Transcribe the following words and identify the vowel /Ә/ (i) manner (ii) library (iii) other (iv) Wonder (v) forward
ASSIGNMENT: Transcribe the following words and identify the vowel /Ә/ (i) backward (ii) harder (iii) sector (iv) failure (v) potato (vii) captor (viii) quiet