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HISTORY 2 STUDY NOTES (WWW.EDU.CO.TZ)
THE RISE OF CAPITALISM IN EUROPE
TRANSITION FROM FEUDALISM TO AGRARIAN REVOLUTION.
Feudalism is a term delivered from the latin word “feudum” meaning fief or an estate of land held on behalf of a lord and in return the holder of the land offered military service and other services to the lord.
Thus, a feudal society is the one in which the basic social and political structure are determined by a practice of fief holding. In other words, feudalism is based on holding of land for renting.
A feudal mode of production, therefore, was based on lord’s ownership of the land as well as incomplete or partial ownership of the peasants and serfs living on the land. The dependent serfs farmed and ran small economies on the land belonging to the feudal lords. Moreover, the relationship between the land lord and his tenants (serfs) was not only an economic one but also social one. The tenant was a vassal of the lord, that is her or she was bound to the lord by special oath of loyalty.
The basic features of feudalism
i. There was bounded relationship between the lords and tenants. The lord normally exercised right of jurisdiction in the land which he held as a fief. The landlord was a governor of the fief.
ii. There was antagonistic classes of lords and the serfs. The function was mainly due to exploitative tendencies of the lords. The lords exploited the serfs.
iii. Under feudalism the two dominant classes were feudal lords and tenants. Tenants were attached to the soils for the production of substance as well as surplus. The surplus was consumed mainly by the landlords.
iv. Production was for subsistence i.e. serfs producers mainly for food and less for exchange.
v.Feudalism in Europe went hand with the building of armies. The armies and other willing class –kings and nobles supported themselves from the produce of their estates. Serfs were the producer in the lords or willing class estates.
vi. In feudalism the feudal activities were basically agrarian (for food production) although few industries existed, many people were attached to the soil, that is cultivating the soil to earn a living.
AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITIAN.
Agrarian revolution refers to the rapid changes which occurred in agriculture sector. The changes were accompanied by the application of science and technology. In Britain, agriculture revolution happened between the 16th Century and 18th Century.
Before the agrarian revolution in Britain, agricultural production was very low. The low productions of agricultural produce were party caused by the land tenure. Land was divided, owned and worked by serfs or peasants. Most of the land was also left fallow ie the large part of the land was not under farming. In addition to low production in agricultural the majority of population in pre-agranal revolution. britian engaged themselves in agriculture. It is estimated that eight percent of Britian’s population were working on the land. Generally, there was low production in agricultural sector before the agrarian revolution. However, there was an increment in agricultural production because changes which constituted agranian revolution.
This is the drastic change in agricultural production through better technique, methods and land tenure. It started in 1450 -1750 but reached maturity in 1801. Agranian revolution started in Netherland-Holland and later English.
Causes of Agrarian revolution
The changes in agricultural production were caused mainly by two factors:
i. The first cause was the rapid increase of population. The large population necessitated the changes in the methods on producing crops and animals so as to cope with the high demand of force from the populate.
The population of Europe as a world and Britian in particular was steadily increasing between 15th and 18th centuries, For example the population of Europe rose from sixty –nine million people to 188million people between 15th and 18th centuries. This increase of population mainly happened in the cities and towns.
ii. The second factor was high demand of wool. The high demand of wool led to sheep commercial farming. The commercial sheep farming in the 16th century due to the demand of wool clothes.
Changes that took place during Agrarian revolution
The agrarian revolution in Britian entailed the following changes
Crop rotation. Unlike the pre-agranian revolution times, farmers of 16th and 18th centuries Britian started to practice crop rotation. They rotated cereal crops with legumes and fodder crops. Legumes crop-peas, beans and clovers-restored nitrogen in the soil. Nitrogen makes soil fertile. One example of farmer who in 1730 grew fodder crops in rotation with other crops was lord Town shed.
The second change was the introduction of new crops in Britian crops such as maize, sweat potatoes and fodder crops were introduced in England from the Americans. The introduction fodder crops led to the constant supply of meat throughout the year because the presence of fodder crops made it possible to make bay for use during writer. This was sharp departure from the pre-agrarian revolution error when all the cattle and other animals were slaughetered during writer for lack of feed.
The use of improved farm instrument. Examples of instruments which were used included iron plough and Jethro Tull’s seed drill.
Extensive use of time to neutralize soil acidity. In addition to liming, farmers applied fertilizers in their farms.
Land reclamation. In order to get more arable land big farmers embarked on draining swam ply land, for example: King Charles I of England financed a Dutch expert- Cornelius Vermigden- to drain Yorkshire and Cambridge shire. Irrigation also practiced during the agricultural revolution.
Another aspect of the agrarian revolution was the improvement in animal breeding. Better horses, cattle and sheep were raised. It was during the agrarian revolution that farmers kept animals for multipurpose. For example, a farmer in Leicester called Bake well produced a large quantities of beef and mutton to feed millions of people.
The agrarian revolution involved the evection of serfs and peasants from the land for pasture i.e. Enclosure of the land.
The second change was the introduction of new crops in Britian crops such as maize, sweat potatoes and fodder crops were introduced in England from the Americans. The introduction fodder crops led to the constant supply of meat throughout the year because the presence of fodder crops made it possible to make bay for use during writer. This was sharp departure from the pre-agrarian revolution error when all the cattle and other animals were slaughetered during writer for lack of feed.
The use of improved farm instrument. Examples of instruments which were used included iron plough and Jethro Tull’s seed drill.
Extensive use of time to neutralize soil acidity. In addition to liming, farmers applied fertilizers in their farms.
Land reclamation. In order to get more arable land big farmers embarked on draining swam ply land, for example: King Charles I of England financed a Dutch expert- Cornelius Vermigden- to drain Yorkshire and Cambridge shire. Irrigation also practiced during the agricultural revolution.
Another aspect of the agrarian revolution was the improvement in animal breeding. Better horses, cattle and sheep were raised. It was during the agrarian revolution that farmers kept animals for multipurpose. For example, a farmer in Leicester called Bake well produced a large quantities of beef and mutton to feed millions of people.
The agrarian revolution involved the evection of serfs and peasants from the land for pasture i.e. Enclosure of the land.
HOW AGRARIAN REVOLUTION LED TO THE CAPITALISM IN EUROPE
The agrarian revolution had a number of contributions to the rise capitalism in Europe.
Increase of supply of food to the growing population in cities including workers in the factories.
The agrarian revolution especially the enclosing of land released to the growing workers in the
The agrarian revolution especially the enclosing of land released or supplied cheap labours to industries. Many serfs and peasants who were evicted from the land for commercial sheep farming (enclosure) were employed in factories in towns and cities.
The agricultural changes also provided market to the industrial manufactured items. In other words, agricultural entrepreneur bought industrial goods needed in agricultural sector.
The change in agriculture supplied raw material needed in industries. One important raw material the agrarian revolution provided to textile industries was wool. Farmers kept sheep commercially for selling wool-wool come from sheep-to industries. In industries the farmers accumulated capital which they invested in industries and trade.
The agricultural revolution also marked the end of small scale or peasant production. The peasant production was replaced by the capitalist farmers.
The agrarian revolution especially the enclosing of land released to the growing workers in the
The agrarian revolution especially the enclosing of land released or supplied cheap labours to industries. Many serfs and peasants who were evicted from the land for commercial sheep farming (enclosure) were employed in factories in towns and cities.
The agricultural changes also provided market to the industrial manufactured items. In other words, agricultural entrepreneur bought industrial goods needed in agricultural sector.
The change in agriculture supplied raw material needed in industries. One important raw material the agrarian revolution provided to textile industries was wool. Farmers kept sheep commercially for selling wool-wool come from sheep-to industries. In industries the farmers accumulated capital which they invested in industries and trade.
The agricultural revolution also marked the end of small scale or peasant production. The peasant production was replaced by the capitalist farmers.
ENCLOSURE SYSTEM
This means consolidation of scattered enable land and common land into a simple compact area of land that is fenced.
DIFFERENT PROCESS OF ENCLOUSURE SYSTEM
I. Enclosure of common land. This was the enclosure of waste land, the process of enclosure of waste land and common land was carried out in 16th and 17th centuries. Sometimes it was an agreement between villages.
II. Enclosure of landlords between 1475 – 1570. This was the period when there was an increase of wool demand due to the expansion of wool.
III. Enclosure of land into strips. This was done by purchasing land from the farmers or owners.
Impacts of the introduction of the Enclosure System in Britain.
i. Freeing of labours from land. Labours were free to sell their labour under their own discretions.
ii.Migration of people.
iii. Peasants were deprived of the right to own land(common land)
iv. Labours were turned to commodities.
v. Rise of unemployment due to emergence of landless people
vi. Made capitalist to own both rural and urban economy (industries and agriculture)
vii.Led to the rise of ploretariants.
RISE OF MERCHANTILISM
MERCHANTILISM
It refers to large scale trade or commercial trade conducted through overseas.
Mercantilism: Is the first stage of capitalism that appeared during 15thC where by trade and commerce was conducted by European countries with the continent of Africa, Asia and America through overseas trade and also silver (precious metal) were used as the coin. Is the period during which feudalism collapsed (demised) as the result of long distance trade conducted between Western Europe countries and other continents in the 15thC.
OR
OR
Is the first stage of capitalism where by its economic system was based on trade and commerce conducted through over seas trade during 15thC-18thC and during this trade a country attracted itself to the use of precious metals (gold and silver) in European transaction.
THE MAIN FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF MERCHANTILISM
1. National Unification
Is the unifying of small states to form one strong state for expansion of internal market, removal of trade barriers and the use of raw materials and other sources available in the same nation. Therefore during the period of merchantilism many European countries were undergoing national unification so as to become one strong state and be in position to compete with other nations. E.g. England,Wales and Scotland joined to form United Kingdom (Great Britain).
2. Bullionism
During this period there was adaptation and application of gold and silver as the medium of exchange because gold and silver were used as coins in European transaction; hence European merchants struggled more and more to get gold and silver from different parts of the world like Zimbabwe, Ghana.etc.
3. Protectionism
During merchantilism European countries protected trade where by each country protected her internal market and natural resources available in a country. This was done in order to protect the interest of trade by not allowing other European countries to compete with them. E.g. United Kingdom protected internal market by acting navigation acts and impose trade barriers such as custom duties and tariff.
4. National rivalry and militarism.
During the period, merchantilism in many European countries intensified their enemity among themselves which brought constant military confrontation. E.g. Britain fought many wars with French, Spain with Portugal for economic interests. Example Britain decided to undergo navy forces during the rule of Tudor monarchy in order to piracy the wealth of other European merchants for development of capitalism in Britain.
5. Colonialism
During this period many European countries began to look for other economic interests in other countries in different parts of the world. The Aim was to colonize countries for economic interests such as raw materials, labour, market and areas for investments. Example The Dutch at the cape of South Africa 1652 where they wanted to control and unite South Africa, Spanish and Portugal wanted to control Australia and Canada.
6. Banking sector/financial institutions
These financial institutions provided loans and credit to the European merchants in order to continue conducting overseas trade and development of science and technology especially marine technology, ship building, compass direction, compass bearing, etc. These institutions were Barclays bank and house of Lloyd s.
FACTORS/FORCES/CAUSES OF THE RISE OF MERCHANTALISM
There were various factors that led to the rise of merchantalism they are as follows;
1. Internal trade (inter trade and craft). The Development of guilds and craftsmen during the period of collapse of European feudalism led to the rise of merchantalism because commodities produced by craftsmen and people who were involved in guilds which accelerated the internal trade example ornaments, plates, mirrors, were later on exported to other parts of the world particularly in Africa, hence the rise of mercantilism.
2. Periodic exhibition among European nations. This promoted the existence of overseas trade among European countries, Africa, Asia and America because the new commodities which were exhibited and new technology acted as the acceleration of merchantilism because merchants and other people of different parts of the world were interested to use the commodities that were exhibited.
3. The development of marine technology with compass direction and compass bearing.
During the 15th century
, Europe witnessed rapid changes in scientific curiosity and inquiry. That was a century in which the scientific revolution took firm roots. Meanwhile marine technology among the European nations enabled the merchants to sail even deep sea. The nations and merchants also constructed large ships which could carry bulky materials such as cotton, tobacco and minerals. Merchants benefited greatly from the marine technology as they could sail to various parts of the world.
, Europe witnessed rapid changes in scientific curiosity and inquiry. That was a century in which the scientific revolution took firm roots. Meanwhile marine technology among the European nations enabled the merchants to sail even deep sea. The nations and merchants also constructed large ships which could carry bulky materials such as cotton, tobacco and minerals. Merchants benefited greatly from the marine technology as they could sail to various parts of the world.
4. Development of financial institutions and insurance company. These provided loans; credit and services to European merchants in order to continue involving in trading activities; so the role played by these institutions accumulated more wealth which they used on investment of economic sector hence the rise of merchantalism.
5. The Rise of strong states and political revolution; this provided security among merchants. Example British after the revolution which removed King Charles I & II from power gave rise of Tudor monarchy. Example The rise of King Henry the navigator facilitated the rise of merchantalism like loans and credit and in France after king Louis was removed from power, French managed to get involved in merchant trade.
6. The role played by enclosure system; This was brought by agrarian revolution, it played a great and important role towards the development of merchantalism because the large scale plantations were established and increase an output of agricultural industrial raw materials like wool, wheat flour, and these agricultural raw materials increased manufactured goods in industries which were needed by European merchants for their own use.
7. Geographical discovery of the new world by Christopher Columbus on 24.10, 1492; led to establishment of plantation and mines in America, Canada, Peru, Colombia, etc.So the establishment of these needed slave labour from Africa after the failure of the red Indians and expressiveness of European criminals and prisoners, hence this led to the establishment of merchantalism because Europeans were in need of raw materials.
8. Profitability of unequal exchange; during this period European got more wealth by using illegal ways like piracy, kidnapping etc. but also they used to sell in Africa commodities of low value and things which were unsellable in Europe, things such as mirror, while they obtained things of high value from African continent like Ivory. So this led to the rise and development of merchantalism.
9. Crusade war; this was a religious war between European (Christians) vs. Arabs (Muslims) in the Middle East near Turkey to control trade and capture the whole city. This made the way to become insecure for European traders but also Arabs controlled the trade routes whereby they increased tariffs to European traders. This forced Europeans to the alternative way to reach India (Asia) and Africa for conducting trade. Hence development and the rise of merchantilism.
IMPACTS OF MERCHANTALISM IN EUROPE AND AFRICA
Western Europe and Africa had a relationship which ensured the transfer of wealth from Africa to Europe. According to W.Rodney on his book “How Europe under-developed Africa” 1972 argued that; over that period Africa helped to develop Western Europe and at the same time Europe under-developed Africa. Trade helped Europe to get numerous developments also the North America benefited from this merchantalism while Africa did not benefit.
IMPACTS OF MERCHANTALISM IN EUROPE
1. Gold and silver accumulated during this period played a very important role in expanding capitalist capital in the economy of Western Europe because it was gold and silver that determined the value of capitalist to develop in terms of money.
2. These trades speed up the European technological development. Example the Trade helped the Europeans in the development of ship building from the 15thC-19thC where by sea going vessels of different sizes were designed for slave tra
de and carrying raw materials from America to Europe and later carry commodities to other parts of the world where markets were available.
de and carrying raw materials from America to Europe and later carry commodities to other parts of the world where markets were available.
3. Merchantalism led to the rise of Sea ports town like Liverpool, Bristol, etc. in these sea ports towns there was a development of manufacturing centers like Ian Cashing which depended on the growth of the port of river.
4. Speed up the development of industrial sector; industries such as textile industries, flour milling, ship industry etc. With development of industries in Europe, it helped European countries to develop as far as capitalism was concerned.
5. The Capital derived from merchantalism helped to a great deal to strengthen transitional links within Western European economy. Example sugar from Caribbean islands was exported from England to France and other parts of the European continent.
6. Merchantalism continued to be source for capital accumulation by European merchants whereby the capital was to be invested in investments such as banks, industries, transport and communication for European development hence capital accumulation was possible due to much exploitation of African resources during merchantalism.
IMPACTS OF MERCHANTALISM IN AFRICA
Africa at large extent was in a negative during this oversea trade because the trade made Africa to be underdeveloped and stagnant all the time, hence the following are the impacts:-
Africa at large extent was in a negative during this oversea trade because the trade made Africa to be underdeveloped and stagnant all the time, hence the following are the impacts:-
1. Merchantalism led to the rise and fall of some African states. These states grew strong during Trans- Saharan trade like Songhai, Mali, Ghana, Benin but they collapsed because its wealth was destroyed after the establishment of triangular slave trade, but some other states grew strongly after the establishment of merchantalism because its wealth depended on this trade. Example Dahomey state.
2. Merchantalism led to the rise of state of fear and insecurity among Africans especially in West Africa This was because during merchantalism African leaders were helping the European merchants to capture their fellow Africans and sell to the Europeans, these people were taken as slaves and shipped to the mines and plantations in America. Also the introduction of
guns brought political instability among Africans who were fighting among themselves for European interests.
guns brought political instability among Africans who were fighting among themselves for European interests.
3. Merchantilism led the destruction of African trade which was established among Africans for their own interests by merchantilism. Example, Long Distance Trade conducted from one region to another region, Trans-Saharan trade which was conducted between West Africa and North Africa. This was due to European merchants who changed the outlook of the trade from not benefiting Africans to benefiting Europeans.
4. Merchantalism led to introduction of unequal exchange which was unequal trade whereby during the trade between Africa and European merchants; Europeans benefited due to the value of commodities and raw materials taken from Africa like rhinoceros horns, tortoise shell, coconut oil, ivory, slaves while in exchange Europeans brought to Africa things which were used and could not be sold in Europe. Things such as daggers, empty bottles, ornament, cigarettes, Portuguese wine.etc.
5. Merchantalism led to stagnation of African science and technology especially African local industries and productive forces but also the action of taking Africans as slaves killed science and technology.
6. Merchantalism led to the decline of African agricultural production because in most cases Africans were in state of fear and insecurity and political instability, hence they could not settle together to involve in agricultural production, in Africa led to famine and hunger.
7. Merchantalism led to introduction of slave trade which led to depopulation of African continent because many African young men and energetic were taken as a slaves to offer their labour power in mines and plantations in America.
8. Merchantalism led to the destruction of African culture because during this period Europeans introduced their culture like eating style, dancing style, marriage etc. which all of them meant to kill African culture because Africans ignored their own culture and started to follow European culture.
CONTRIBUTION OF MERCHANTALISM TO THE RISE OF CAPITALISM IN EUROPE
1. Merchantalism led to the accumulation of capital among Europeans. This led to investment and re-investment in economic sectors like banks, industry, transport and communication hence the capital obtained in merchantalism Led to the rise of industrial capitalism.
2. Merchantalism led to the development of financial institutions and insurance companies. These institutions facilitated the development of capitalism especially industrial capitalism because they provided loans, credit and services to the Europeans merchants to continue involved in overseas trade, hence development of capitalism.
3. Merchantalism led to the development of towns, cities, and sea port towns notably Manchester, Leads, Liverpool, Lisbon, Paris, etc. because in these towns there was development of trade and manufacturing center which developed to industrial cities which attracted many of European population to live in those towns and a lot of town requirement were available in those towns. Example water, electricity, good houses.etc.
4. Merchantalism led to advancement and development of science and technology. Example the sea going science and technology like ship building, compass bearing, compass direction, etc. This was because during merchantalism, ships of different size were designed specifically for carrying slaves from Africa to America and used for carrying raw materials from America to Europe and later commodities were taken from Europe to other parts of the world especially Africa where market was available.
5. Merchantalism led to availability of cheap labour in European plantation, mine, and industries. African slaves were taken in a large quantity during this period to America to offer their labor power in plantations established in Canada, USA, etc. but others offered their labor power in European mines established in Peru, Colombia all these led to the development and growth of industries in Europe.
6. Merchantalism led to availability of raw materials which were needed to develop European countries because these raw materials which were produced in the new world like cotton, sugar cane, tobacco, sisal etc. was transported to Europe to be manufactured as commodities and later these commodities were sold in other parts of the world especially in Africa for European development.
7. Merchantalism led to availability of markets both internal and external market for absorbing European industrial goods. During merchantalism European goods were sold in Europe and Africa where markets were available for economic interests of European merchants. Example: European goods which were not purchased in Europe got markets in Africa and Latin America for development of capitalism in Europe.
8. Merchantalism led to Agrarian revolution during the 16thC where by European merchants started to invest in agricultural sector by using wealth obtained during this oversea trade, especially unequal exchange. The European traders got a lot of wealth by using unequal exchange and started to invest in agricultural sector for more production of raw materials like wheat for making breads and wool for making woolen clothes.
9. Merchantalism led to the emergence of strong military states in order to defend and protect the wealth of nations, merchants and their boundaries e.g. UK during the Tudor monarchy especially the rule of King Henry VIII led Britain to undergo navy forces in order to increase the wealth of Britain after piracy and killing other European merchants who passed near Britain boundary.
10. Merchantalism led to the rise of European nationalism; where by small European nations united together to increase and expand the market for their nations, removed trade barriers among the nations joint, protected merchants and used the resources available among the small nations unified. E.g. UK (Wales, England, Scotland) to form United Kingdom.
CONDITIONS WHICH FORCED MERCHANTS TO CAPTURE SLAVES FROM AFRICA TO AMERICA AND CARRIBEANS
1. Merchantalism
This was an economic system which involved in conducting trade overseas searching for gold and silver. Merchantalism led to the rise of Trans-Atlantic slave trade which was a trading activity which involved Africa, America and Europe. During this trade millions of Africans were shipped to America to provide cheap labour in mines and plantations.
2. Booming capitalist agriculture.
During merchantalism European capitalist established different plantations of coffee, tea, sugar cane, cotton and tobacco which called for massive supply of cheap labours, thus the supply of white labour was getting difficult compared to the expanding needs of the plantations, therefore this called for importation of slaves from Africa.
3. Industrial revolution in Europe.
Due to the industrial revolution, there was need to expand home markets thus the merchants and the ruling class in Europe were afraid of under population, this prompted the campaign against the use of white labourers. The crisis called for massive importation of slaves from Africa to provide cheap labour in mines and plantations.
4. Africans slaves were cheap.
It’s on record that money paid on white labour for ten years could procure on African slaves for life. In addition a white worker was expected to acquire land at the end of the contract while on African slaves was prevented by law from owning land. These conditions necessitated the use of African origin in the new world.
5. Discovery of maritime technology.
This acted as a pushing factor for Africans to be taken as slaves. Maritime technology eased transportation and guided the merchants to locate Africa. Thus be in position to transport people of African origin to the new world.
6. Inability of the indigenous people.
Initially the Europeans were using Native Americans, Red Indians to provide cheap labour power on the plantations and mining centers but later the red Indians died in huge numbers due to plague. This called for importation of African slaves which contributed to the existence of people of African origin in the new world.
7. Discovery of the new world.
The Discovery of the new world by Christopher Columbus in 1492 contributed to the existence of people of African origin in the new world. The discovery led to the establishment of plantations and mining centers that demanded for cheap labours which called for importation of African slaves.
THE ABOLITION OF THE TRANS ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE
The Trans Atlantic slave trade refers to that type of trade that involve three continents America, Africa and Europe.
In this trading system, Africa was the source of cheap labour in the form of slaves, America was the source of raw materials and Europe was the source of manufactured goods.
The main participants were Britain, France, Holland and Portugal. The British were the ones who benefited so much from this trade since the 17th C, took the lead in the abolition of slave trade in the first half of the 19th C. the British took various steps to abolish slave trade consequently in 1807, Britain passed a bill making slave trade illegal in all her colonies and in 1833; a law was passed that called for the emancipation of all slaves in the British empire.
There are various forces that compelled the British to abolish the Trans Atlantic slave trade. These factors included the following;
A Economic reasons
These were the main factors that forced the British to abolish the Trans Atlantic slave trade, they included;
1) Capitalist production
Capitalist production involves two classes of societies, which are the capitalists who control the major means of production and the workers who are employed by the capitalists. For the workers to be effectively employed, they must be free and not slaves.
2) Need for markets
Due to the industrial revolution, there was increased production of industrial products in Europe that lacked enough demand; this forced the British to abolish slave trade so that markets can be created in Africa for their manufactured goods.
3) Need for raw materials
Due to the industrial revolution, there was increased demand for raw materials in Britain. The existing raw materials were limited to supply due to the mushrooming of industries. This situation necessitated the abolition of the Trans Atlantic slave trade so that Africans can produce the needed raw materials.
4) The use of machines
The industrial revolution was characterized by the use of machines in the production process, these machines replaced human labour. The owners of the machines campaigned for the abolition of the Trans Atlantic slave trade because slave labour had become redundant.
5) French and British competition over sugar production.
For so long period, the British had a monopoly on sugar in the European market. The sugar was produced by slave labour in the British West Indies. The British was selling their sugar at very high prices thus making huge profits. However by the end of the 18th C, the French West Indies and re union islands were producing sugar in large quantities and selling at a cheaper price thus making more profits than the British. This situation made slave labour in British West Indies useless thus forcing the British to abolish the Trans Atlantic slave trade.
SOCIAL REASONS THAT LED TO THE ABOLITION OF TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE.
SOCIAL REASONS THAT LED TO THE ABOLITION OF TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE.
B Religious reasons
The religious bodies contributed to the abolition of the Trans Atlantic slave trade in Africa. They argued that slave trade was against the will of God because he had created all people equal but slave trade was treating Africans as an inferior class. The Christians denounced slave trade in the name of God and argued that it must be abolished.
C French revolution of 1789
The French revolution of 1789 had a role to play in the abolition of the Trans Atlantic slave trade. The slogan of the revolution was fraternity, liberty and equality. Philosophers such as Rousseau campaigned for the abolition of slave trade. These philosophers claimed that slave trade was against the ideals of the French revolution thus it had to be stopped.
D Humanitarian movements
The humanitarians such as Granville sharp and Thomas Clarkson played a certain role in the abolition of the Trans Atlantic slave trade. These people argued that slave trade had caused a lot of suffering to the people thus it had to be abolished. These efforts were followed by British declarations of 1807 and 1833 which abolished slave trade and slavery.
Effects of the abolition of the Trans Atlantic slave trade
a Foundation of sierra Leone and Liberia.
These areas were established by the Europeans powers as settlements for the freed slaves. They received freed slaves from America. It should be noted that the Trans Atlantic slave trade uprooted millions of Africans who were supposed to offer labour in America.
b Introduction of legitimate trade.
There was introduction of legitimate trade that involved the buying and selling of natural resources, Example palm oil and cocoa. The colonial powers introduced legitimate trade so that it can facilitate the acquisition of raw materials and markets which were crucial in Europe after the industrial revolution.
c Exploitation of hinterland.
Before the abolition of the Trans Atlantic slave trade, the colonial powers operated along the coast of West Africa searching for slaves, but after the abolition of slave trade they penetrated the interior searching for raw materials and market where they can sell their manufactured goods.
d Increased spread of Christianity.
The European powers increased the spread of Christianity after the abolition of slave trade. Christianity was a way of compensating for the ills committed by slave trade. This religion was also spread to counter the spread of Islam in West Africa.
e Increased provision of social services.
The colonial powers increased the provision of social services especially education. The main aim of colonial education was to train Africans to become better producers of raw materials that were needed in Europe. Colonial education was also supposed to change the mentality of Africans to prefer European goods thus created a ready market for them.
f Improvement of the agricultural sector.
The colonial powers improved the agricultural sector by introducing better methods of farming to increase the production of raw materials. It should be noted that the colonialists discouraged the production of food crops in Africa.
g Linguistic studies.
The colonial powers studied native languages so that they can be able to translate the Bible into local languages. This move was to convert many Africans to Christianity. The languages that were studied by the imperialist were Hausa and Fulani.
TRANSITION FROM COTTAGE SYSTEM TO FACTORY SYSTEM
TRANSITION FROM COTTAGE SYSTEM TO FACTORY SYSTEM
CAPITALISM
Refers to the class mode of production consisting of the capitalists who own the major means of production and the workers or proletarians that are deprived of the means of production in order to get profit. Feudalism did not collapse at once; the decline was a gradual process which was caused by various factors.
Refers to the class mode of production consisting of the capitalists who own the major means of production and the workers or proletarians that are deprived of the means of production in order to get profit. Feudalism did not collapse at once; the decline was a gradual process which was caused by various factors.
Factors that contributed rise of factory system (industrial capitalism)
1. Growth of population.
There was a rapid increase in population especially in Britain at the end of the 15thC; this increase was caused by better medical facilities and early marriages. In 1485 AD, Britain had three million people. This increase in production contributed to the rise of capitalism by providing a ready market for manufactured goods and cheap labor in industries.
Also increased population facilitated cheap labor in industries, leaving rural areas hence decline of feudalism and rise of capitalism.
2. Growth of towns.
The Growth of towns for example Manchester and Liverpool contributed to the rise of industrial capitalism. These towns attracted many people who undertook trade and commerce which contributed to the demise of feudalism.
3. Agrarian revolution.
The improvement of agriculture contributed significantly to the collapse of feudalism. The changes in agriculture for example crop rotation and the use of machines led to increase in production. The Increase in production led to acquisition of wealth which was used to finance the industrial revolution hence rise of capitalism.
4. Political revolutions.
Political revolutions e.g. the English revolution of 1640 and the French revolution of 1789 contributed to the rise of capitalism. These revolutions destroyed feudalism and put the major means of production in the hands of capitalists hence leading to the rise of capitalism.
5. Commercial revolution.
Refers to fundamental changes which were characterized by the development of international trade and the rise of merchant class. Through international trade, European countries especially Britain acquired a lot of capital which was used to finance the industrial revolution, thus the rise of capitalism.
6. Monetization of the economy.
The Introduction of money as a medium of exchange played a great role in the rise of capitalism in Europe. Money formed the basis of capitalism by financing the industrial revolution, thus the rise of capitalism.
7. The Hundred year war.
The war was fought between the British and the French, during the course of the war British plundered French towns and enriched themselves. This was a form of primitive accumulation of capital which contributed significantly to the rise of capitalism.
8. Scientific and technological revolutions.
The Scientific revolution refers to major technological changes that took place in Europe and paved the way for the rise of capitalism. The Revolution led to the expansion of commodity production which led to the development of internal trade that contributed to the industrial development thus the rise of capitalism.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN (1750s – 1850s).
This can be defined as the sum total of radical or fundamental changes in various sectors of the economy especially industry, transport, banking and technology. During this period new machines for mass production were invented; large scale industries replaced cottage industries.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN (1750s – 1850s).
This can be defined as the sum total of radical or fundamental changes in various sectors of the economy especially industry, transport, banking and technology. During this period new machines for mass production were invented; large scale industries replaced cottage industries.
Why Britain was the first country to industrialize in Europe
The industrial revolution begun in Britain on a large scale for the first time, later spread to other countries such as France, Germany, Spain and Belgium. During this period Britain was referred to as the “workshop of the world”.
The causes of the industrial revolution are classified into internal and external factors;
Internal Factors
a Growth of the internal market.
This was caused by the rapid growth in population during the 18th century. There was about 10.5M people in 1801 and 20 M people in 1851. This growth of population was due to better health care and sanitation. The increase in population provided ready markets for industrial products thus contributing to the industrial revolution.
b Improvement of the transport systems.
There was improvement in the transport system through the construction of roads, railways and canals. The good transport system supported the industrial revolution by providing cheap and reliable transport.
c Non governmental interference.
The British government pursued the laissez faire policy (no government intervention) whereby the government allowed the economy to operate fairly and freely with few controls. The absence of government interference encouraged investors to increase production thus contributing to the industrial revolution.
d Peace and stability.
The monarchy which controlled Britain provided a stable and predictable government. This monarchy has maintained peace and stability which are conducive for industrial activities.
e Free trade system.
Britain had the largest free trade unity in Europe completely unhampered by the local tariffs system. Almost each part of Britain produced something and traded with others. The absence of internal tariffs encouraged industrial activities thus leading to industrial revolution.
f Geographical advantage.
Britain had an added advantage in natural resources which stimulated industrial revolution. There was existence of coal and iron in plenty, coal mining was important in coastal shipping and provision of cheap fuel and later rail road construction. The existence of these two natural resources generated more technological innovations that enabled Britain to undergo the industrial revolution.
g Technological advantages
Britain was the first country to undergo technological advancement in various aspects. There were various discoveries that took place in Britain which facilitated the industrial revolution. In 1776, James Watt discovered the steam engine and in 1775 Miller Cromb discovered the water frame. These discoveries contributed to the scientific revolution and finally the industrial revolution.
External Factors
a International links
The paramount cause of the industrial revolution was the Trans Atlantic slave trade. British companies traded with all countries in Europe but most important was trade with Asia and North America. The most profitable business acquired huge profits which were used to build many industries.
b Existence of many colonies.
Britain had so many colonies in Africa, America and Asia. These colonies provided raw materials and ready markets for industrial products, therefore contributing to the industrial revolution.
The industrial revolution led to drastic economic and social changes in the lives of the British people. It replaced agriculture as the main source of wealth and was responsible for the scramble for the control of the rest of the world.
Effects of industrial revolution in Europe
a Development of industrial towns.
The industrial revolution contributed to the development of industrial towns such as Lancashire, Birmingham and derby shire in Britain. Development of these towns was due to the industries which were established near the markets and source of raw materials that attracted a number of people to settle in those areas thus leading to the development of towns.
b Environmental degradation
The industrial revolution contributed to environmental pollution in Europe. It led to chemical contamination in water bodies and air pollution. The destruction of the environment also contributed to the eruption of diseases which led to loss of lives.
c Development of free trade policy.
The industrial revolution contributed to the development of free trade in Europe. Free trade is an economic policy that allows free transfer of goods without economic barriers or tariffs. This policy was influenced by the production of large quantities of industrial goods that required overseas markets.
d Rise of proletariat/ working classes
The industrial revolution contributed to the development of working class in Europe. Members of the working class did not posses anything except their labor. They sold their labor to the owners of the industries who in turn paid those low wages and were forced to work under poor conditions. Their exploitation led to the formation of various movements such as Luddism and Chartism.
e Introduction of democracy
It contributed to the collapse of absolute monarchies that had existed in Europe during the feudal period. In France there was the bourbon monarchy where all French kings right from Louis XIV were despotic. The monarchy in Britain was also despotic, the kings believed in the “divine right of the king” whereby the king was not answering to any man except God. The industrial revolution replaced absolute monarchies with parliamentary system.
f Economic hardship
It was characterized with so many economic hardships. The workers were paid very low wages which were not enough to satisfy ordinary human beings. To supplement their meager pay; many fathers were forced to send their children into factories at the age of five. The workers were forced to work for 14 hours a day.
g Development of slums
The industrial revolution contributed to the development of slums in Europe with the growth of population in the 18th C. The older towns became more and more over crowded. More and more big families crowded into each house. Slums were very common in towns such as absence of proper sanitation and increased crime.
Why Britain was referred to as the workshop of the world.
Between 1750s and 1870s Britain was referred to as the workshop of the world by other European countries because all the commodities of the world were being produced in Britain, during the period of Victoria, the entire world depended on high quality products from Britain.
There are various reasons to why Britain was called the workshop of the world, these included the following;
a. First to undergo the industrial revolution.
Britain was the first country to undergo the industrial revolution in 1750 AD and then it spread to other countries such as German and France. The British people regarded themselves as the source of world civilization and their country was a model to other countries.
b. Source of technology and innovation.
Britain was the source of technology in the world. Most of the inventions in technology took place in Britain e.g. the steam engine that was discovered in 1776 by James Watt and the maritime technology that started in Britain. It was Britain that set the pace for the industrialization of other countries.
c. Largest colonial empire.
Britain had the largest colonial empire in the world. It controlled at least a quarter of the world’s population. It had colonies in Asia, America and Africa. These colonies provided a ready market for British manufactured goods and raw materials that contributed to the industrial revolution.
d. Huge economy
Britain had the largest economy between 1750 AD and 1870 AD; its economy was worth 540 million pounds the largest in Europe and it was followed by France which had 250 million pounds. The possession of the largest economy explains why it was called the workshop of the world.
e. Leading exporter of industrial goods.
Britain was the leading exporter of the industrial products by that time and she monopolized the export of high quality industrial goods, this enabled her to control the world market and obtain higher profits this situation made Britain to be referred to as the workshop of the world.
f. Stable government
The monarchy in Britain provided a stable and predictable government in the country. Peace and security provided a conducive atmosphere for massive investment thus enabling Britain to have the largest economy in the whole world.
g. Geographical advantage.
Britain had an added advantage in natural resources which stimulated the industrial revolution. The existence of coal and iron in plenty was a crucial factor for the industrial revolution. Coal mining was important in the provision of fuel and later in railway road construction.
h. Existence of a fairly developed banking system.
The development of financial institutions accelerated the industrial revolution in Britain. The banks provided loans to capitalist investors which made it possible for them to invest in various sectors of the economy, this massive investment enabled Britain to have the largest economy.
i. Good transport system.
There was a fundamental improvement of transport system through the construction of roads and railways. The good transport system encouraged industrial activities by providing the cheap and reliable transportation system.
FORMATION OF WORKING CLASS MOVEMENTS
The Working class movement was the organization of workers that was formed after the prioritization in Europe. One of the immediate causes of the working class movement was impact of industrial revolution like unemployment, exploitation which owners faced after working in industries, low wages, long working hours, and lack of land during enclosure system which led people to go to the towns to look for employment.
Factors that contributed to the rise of the working class movement
a Rise of Industrial cities
There was development of industrial cities especially in the north and central parts of Britain. These cities involved Leads, Bradford, and Birmingham. The rise of industrial cities attracted people who sought employment in capitalist industries where they were exposed to exploitation and pressure.
b Massive unemployment.
Since the capitalists could only employ workers if they could make profit out of them, industrial capitalism led to massive unemployment in Britain, This condition subjected the employed to low wages. In reaction the employees formed working class movements to demand for better wages.
c Poor working conditions.
The poor working conditions in industrial countries contributed to the rise of working class movements. The workers were subjected to long working hours, poor working conditions forced the workers to form working class movement.
d Agrarian revolution.
The Agrarian revolution was characterized by the introduction of the enclosure system which involved buying land from the small peasants by the wealthy capitalists. The enclosure system made many people landless and therefore they shifted to towns they were exposed to exploitation and oppression.
e Napoleonic wars.
The wars between Britain and France during the period of Napoleon brought misery on the workers in Britain because they caused a great rise in the cost of living. The prices of food especially bread increased by hundred percent and there was heavy taxation which fell the working class movement.
LUDDISM (1811 – 1830)
Also known as the Luddite movement This was the first industrial working class movement in Britain. The word “luddism” came from an imaginary figure “Ned Lud” who was believed to be mythical leader of the movement. This movement dominated the early faces of the industrial revolution at the beginning of the 19th C. the movement concentrated on breaking machines because the members thought that their exploitation and oppression was due to the machines.
Aims/ Objectives of Luddism working class
a One of the main achievements of the movements was to break the newly invented machines. The workers in Britain believed that low wages and massive unemployment was due to the new instruments of production.
b Fight for better working conditions. The members of luddism were fighting for better condition in industries and mines. The workers in Britain were working in very poor conditions. There was very poor sanitation which caused various diseases.
c Fighting for high wages. The members of luddism were fighting against the exploitation of the workers. The workers worked for very long hours but were paid very low wages.
d Better social services. To fight for accessibility of social services and workers welfare like pensions, medical fees and insurance. These services were important because the workers were paid low wages.
Factors that contributed to the failure of luddism
a. Failure to identify the true enemy.
The members of luddism failed to identify their true enemy that is they could not distinguish between machines and the capitalists. The luddites believed that they were getting low wages because of the machines that are being introduced, yet the fact was due to the capitalists who wanted to maximize profits by giving the workers low wages.
b. Illiteracy.
The members of luddism were not educated thus they did not present any program for reform because they lacked a clear ideology. Due to the absence of clear ideology, the movements lacked massive support for the people which later contributed to its decline.
c. The use of wrong methods.
The methods used by luddites were wrong. The act of breaking machines did not gain any sympathy from employers or the government. The government was determined to use force to suppress the movement hence contributing to its failure.
d. Disunity
The luddites were not united in the sense that some of the members preferred to use violent means that is destroying machines but some wanted to use peaceful methods that is engaging in dialogue with the employers for increased wages and better working conditions.
e. Absence of strong leadership.
The movement lacked strong leadership because it was based on an imaginary figure called Ned Ludd. The absence of strong leadership made it difficult to unite all the workers and fight against one common enemy, the capitalists.
f. Inadequate funds.
The movement faced the problem of inadequate funds thus it failed to run and coordinate its activities effectively in the struggle against the capitalists. It should be noted that the capitalists had a lot of resources at their disposal to sustain the struggle against the luddites.
g. Concentrated in urban areas.
The movement was not large in scope; it concentrated in urban industrial centers thus as a result it lost massive support in the country side. This factor contributed tremendously to the decline of the movement.
h. Lack of consistency.
The movement lacked consistency in the fight against the capitalist class. The movement was sporadic in its activities thus it failed to apply enough pressure against the capitalists thus contributing to its decline.
The significance or success of the Luddite movement in Britain
a. Enlightened the workers.
The workers became aware of their exploitation and oppression by the capitalist class hence they started to act as a class by taking the action of breaking the machines, this reaction forced the capitalist’s class to respond positively by increasing wages.
b. Development of more working class movements.
It was an important catalyst in the development of working class movements in future, when luddism failed another movement known as Chartism was established which used some of the principles of luddism.
c. Unity of workers.
The movement contributed to the unity of workers by bringing together different workers from different walks of life under one movement, luddism. It is this unity which later contributed to the formation of Chartism.
d. Achievement of some rights.
The movement was able to achieve some rights for the workers; Example holidays and wages were slightly increased. There was prohibition of child labor in industries.
THE CHARTISM MOVEMENT 1838 – 1848.
Chartism was a British working class movement of the 1830s named after peoples’ charter which was drafted in London in 1838. It was a first typical working class movement and it was national in scope.
The movement came after industrial capitalism had efficiently developed and the workers had increased in number making their working conditions more horrible.
The factors that contributed to the rise of Chartism
The basic reasons for the rise of Chartism was industrial capitalism, however various factors can be identified that had contributed to the rise of the chartist movement.
a. The poor law amendment act of 1834
This was an amendment to the poor law that was passed in 1601 by Queen Elizabeth to deal with the poor people. In this law the British government was providing basic necessities to the aged and the infirm (crippled). The exploited workers were given what was called “doles” which were relief funds to supplement the low wages of the workers. However after the Anglo – French war of 1795, the parliament amended the act whereby the government would only assist the aged and the infirm and not the exploited workers.
b. Economic slump of 1837 – 1838.
The economic foundation of Chartism was the economic depression of the late 1830s. This period was characterized by a decline in production which led to a rapid increase in prices and shortage of food. It also led to massive unemployment in Britain.
c. Collapse of the Grand National trade union.
The Grand National trade union was formed by Robert Owen. Its main aim was to absorb all different trade unions and use general strike as a weapon to achieve the goals of the workers. This trade union was however crippled by the government by sentencing the leaders to jail. The collapse of the union meant that the workers remained without a movement to express their grievances, thus the formation of Chartism.
d. Disappointment with the reform bill.
The reform bill which was introduced in 1831 in the parliament brought several changes. The parliament was divided into two categories, the House of Lords which consisted of dukes, bishops and king appointees and the House of Commons which consisted of members elected by the people according to the bill. For one to be elected he/she should have land and earning not less than 40 pounds per year, this law discriminated very many workers to be voted because they possessed nothing.
e. Increased in indirect taxes.
During the Napoleonic wars, the national debt had risen to 902,000,000 million pounds in 1816. The obvious way to raise such amount of money was to increase income tax but this was abolished and indirect taxation was introduced whereby taxes were increased on common articles like tea, tobacco, paper and soap. Thus in reaction the workers formed the chartist movement.
f. The corn law of 1815.
This was a law which was passed to protect the agriculture of the landlords against the post war slump. The law stipulated that there would be no importation of wheat. The intention of this law was to keep the prices artificially high in the interests of the landlords while neglecting the need for cheap food for the workers.
Tactics of Chartism
The workers used different tactics or techniques to fight for their rights during the chartist movement. These tactics included the following;
a. Petitions
The movement used petition which involved persuading the parliament to accept its demands by organizing mass petitions for the implementations of their demands. In 1842, three million workers signed a petition but it was rejected by the parliament as the parliament was full of capitalists.
b. Campaigns
These were done through cheap newspaper and mass political meetings. The leaders of the chartist movement organized big political meetings were they discussed all their problems thus making the people aware on what they were fighting for.
c. Strikes
The biggest weapon of the workers was a strike; this is where the workers stopped production aiming at making losses to the employers in the attempt of forcing them to make changes.
Factors that contributed to the decline of Chartism
a. Revival of the economy
One of the major factors that contributed to a decline of the chartist movement was economic depression of the late 1830s. During the 1850s, the economy was revived, trade increased and more people were employed. This prosperity made the workers to abandon the movement thus contributing to its decline.
b. Disunity
Disunity between the leadership and their followers contributed significantly to the collapse of the chartist movement. The leadership and their followers could not agree whether or not to turn the movement into a full revolution and overthrow the government so as to set up the peoples’ republic, some of the workers wanted to use peaceful means by negotiating with their employers.
c. Heavy hand of the government.
The government contributed significantly to the decline of Chartism. It used troops and laws to suppress the movement, some of the leaders were imprisoned while others were killed thus causing a decline of the movement.
d. Hostility of the capitalists.
The capitalists aimed at maximizing their profits and therefore were determined to suppress the movement. The capitalists were always suspicious about the intention of the working class thus they opposed whatever the workers were demanding.
e. Inadequate funds.
Inadequate funds were one of the paramount causes for the decline of the chartist movement. The working class in Britain was always bankrupt thus it could not sustain strikes for a long period of time.
f. Lack of permanent members.
Chartism faced the problem of absence of permanent members to support the movement. The organization had no clear regulation and principles to be followed by the members the members were free to join and leave the movement if they wished. The absence of permanent members had a big role to play in the fall of the chartist movement
Significance of the chartist movement
a. Cooperation
The chartists movement cultivated the spirit of cooperation in the minds of the industrial workers as they joined together for a common course that is to fight against exploitation and oppression.
b. Formation of trade union
The chartist movement laid the foundation for the formation of another working class movement which was the trade union. The movement demonstrated the importance of working class voice which contributed to the formation of trade union that built their principle and objectives on the failure of Chartism.
c. Development of democracy
Due to the pressure mounted by the chartist, the government in Britain decided to give workers representation in the parliament. The owners were given equal opportunities like other people in political, economical and social affairs. Britain was among the first countries to practice real democracy.
d.
Introduction of socialist ideology.
Introduction of socialist ideology.
The movement contributed to the introduction of socialist ideologies in Britain because it claimed that the exploitation and oppression of the workers was due to capitalism. The leaders of Chartism such as Robert Owen used the ideas of Karl Max to oppose capitalism.
e. Formation of the labor party.
The chartist movement laid the foundation for the formation of a new independent labor party in Britain which later became a prominent political party. The spirit of unity introduced by Chartism was the one used to form labor party.
f. Awakened the workers.
The movement awakened the workers by making them aware about the nature of capitalism, i.e. it is associated with exploitation and oppression of the workers. The leaders of Chartism argued that the workers were been exploited because the capitalists wanted to maximize profit by paying them low wages.
g. Attained some of the demands.
Some of the demands of the chartist movement were achieved; Example the payment of the members of parliament, voting through secret ballot and the Corn Law was also abolished.
h. National in scope.
The chartists movement remains in history as the first working class movement to be national in scope and revolutionary in character. It was also the first movement to use political means to fight for the rights of the workers.
TRADE UNIONS/ NEW MODEL UNION
The trade union is a workers association or institution that fights for increased wages and better working condition.
A trade union is a struggle institution because it consists of workers as a class fighting for improved working conditions.
These union came to be known as new model trade unions because they formed by skilled and professional workers. One of the examples of the trade unions in Britain was the Amalgamation society of engineer (ASE)
Tactics of trade unions
a. Collective bargaining
This is where the trade unions bargained or negotiated with their employees so that their demands can be met. These demands included better wages, reduced working hours and better working conditions.
b. Use of strike
The most powerful weapon of the trade unions is a strike. The workers believed that if they asked for the same thing and refused to work unless they get it, they would be in a good bargaining position with their employers.
Features of trade Unions
a. Skilled members
Members of trade unions were skilled workers who formed a small population of the working force. Unskilled workers were entirely left out in these organizations.
b. National in scope
Trade unions were
national in scope because they combined all workers from different parts of the country Example the Grand National trade union of spinners combined all spinners in Britain into one association.
national in scope because they combined all workers from different parts of the country Example the Grand National trade union of spinners combined all spinners in Britain into one association.
c. Use of strikes
Trade unions were characterized by the use of peaceful methods when demanding for their rights. They discouraged the use strikes without consent of all national members. A strike which is greatest weapon is used a last resort. The members of the trade unions were paid fees in order to sustain a long strike.
d. Proper leadership.
Trade unions have regional or district officers and national headquarters with full time secretaries. They are also run by full time officials who are paid salaries. Trade unions also have a clear constitution.
e. Financially sound.
The trade unions were financially sound due to reliable annual contributions made by the members. The fees paid enabled the trade unions to sustain a long strike thus putting pressure on the employers.
f. Economic well being of the workers.
The trade unions centered on the economic well being of the workers, they demanded for better working conditions and improved wages for the workers.
The significance of trade unions in Britain
a. Introduction of unity and solidarity.
The trade unions contributed to the introduction of unity and solidarity among the workers. There was an amalgamation of trade unions, the process made it easier by the trade union acts of 1964. Workers were drawn from different parts of the country.
b. Defended the rights of the workers.
The trade unions protected and defended the rights of the workers; the workers were educated to make their labor expensive through common effort and unions against their employers. Standard salaries were set that enabled the workers to get basic needs.
c. Formation of a political party.
The spirit of unity that was introduced by the trade unions contributed to the formation and consolidates political party for the workers, this party was known as Labor Representation Committee (LRC) which after the general elections of 1906 it became the labor party.
d. Fought for women’s rights.
The trade unions played a leading role in advancing the interests of women. The women had been subjected to exploitation and oppression in industries. Women trade unions were formed in textiles and tobacco industries. There was also a formation of the “women’s trade union league”.
e. Emergency of a class of skilled workers.
The trade unions consisted of skilled workers from different sectors of the economy, this encouraged workers personal advancement so as to acquire more skills. The trade union membership in Britain had reached 53.4%.
f. Achievement of some rights
The trade unions managed to achieve some political and economic rights. The government in Britain reduced the working hours and passed a minimum wage for the workers. The workers were also fully represented in the parliament.
g. Promoted the culture of non violence.
The trade unions were using non violent methods in advancing their interests, they depended on the use of collective bargaining were they negotiated with their employers for better wages and improved working conditions. They tried as much as possible to avoid the use of force.
h. Encouraged professionalism.
The trade unions urged the workers to respect their professions. The unions set standard salaries that would enable the workers to meet their basic needs. Due to trade unions, the number of skilled workers increased in Britain while that of manual workers decreased.
The political forces that explain the rise of capitalism
These forces include the following
a. The English revolution of 1940
b. The French revolution of 1789
PRE COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETY
This was drastic political revolution changes that took place (in 1640- 1689) made by Oliver ground to dismarith
Monarchy government under King Charles I in (1648) and James II (1685) because it being in nature against the can
THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION
British before undergoing political revolution had experience do various political war like the war of (hundred year’s war) both France- Britain
The war of rose as the war fought between the Northern Kingdom of Lank shine and southern kingdoms
These two kingdoms symbolized by red rose for Northern kingdom and white rose for the southern kingdom of the war roses started 1455 to 1485
Historically the English revolution of 1648 to 1658 did not erupted like a thunderstorm, from a blue of rath
er it was gradual change which influenced by several historically factors include, Absolution adaptation of second under monarch government under King Henry VII king Henry VIII Edward man lad gray I, Queen may I, Queen Elizabeth, James I, Charles II and James II had element of dictator-ship were state matter in England under such situation James II abandoned Peaceful in 1688 and run to France, this Glorious revolution act it involved no blood shed.
er it was gradual change which influenced by several historically factors include, Absolution adaptation of second under monarch government under King Henry VII king Henry VIII Edward man lad gray I, Queen may I, Queen Elizabeth, James I, Charles II and James II had element of dictator-ship were state matter in England under such situation James II abandoned Peaceful in 1688 and run to France, this Glorious revolution act it involved no blood shed.
THE GROUP CATEGORIES OF THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION
There were 2 groups’ categories of the English revolution which occurred in 1648
– 1688 which include the following
- THE PURITAN REVOLUTION
This was the kind of revolution which took place in 1648 being organized by the puritors led by Oliver Cromwell to overthrow the Tudor monarch government. Under the King Charles I the involvement blood shed King Charles I was assassinated publicity
- THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION
This was the religious revolution which took place 1680 being organized by the religious bodies which divined direct to be governed by king James II because he was not obeying Anglican church principle in high government with this situation James II abundance peacefully in 1688 with bloodshed
FACTORS FOR THE RISE/CAUSE OF ENGLISH REVOLUTION OF 1648-1688(puritan and Glorious revolution)
- The theory of divine right of king
- Religious conflict
- Kings extravagance
- The role of Oliver crowned
- Conservativeness of the feudal mode of production that hinder the government in Britain
- The role of writing of English philosophers
- Dismissal of the parliament
IMPACT / SIGNIFICANCE OF ENGLISH REVOLUTION IN THE DVT OF CAPITALISM
- The English revolution led to the formation at the industrial revolution in Britain. In the 18th c to 19th c after the revolution the middle classes rose up as powerful class which took different major in promoting trade and industry.
- The revolution brought … freedom to the people as has they were able to worship the way they within any sect
- The English revolution was stimulating force to the occurrence after revolution in the world Eg. French revolution.
- Led to development of single currency which made it possible for Britain to have uniform currency all over the country that facilitated the selling and buying manufactured goods
- The raw swept away all forms of kings absolution and dictatorship in England and brought realistic constitutional monarchy under full practice of human right
- Free internal and external trade. Traders were favored and encouraged eg: abolition of internal taxes of goods example: overseas trade was promoted.
CONTRIBUTION OF ENGLISH REVOLUTION TO THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY IN BRITAIN
- It brought multiparty political system, basically in Great Britain where by conservative part and liberal party were enacted this give chance individual to select the leader of their wishes hence Democracy
- Emergence of shared government the English revolution of 17th c which organized by Oliver crowed made the emergence of shared government between the common people and existing government.
- English revolution brought much freedom of worship as they able to worship the may they wish in any sect
- Respect of human right the English revolution which experienced in 1648 to 1688 gave room to the respect of human right as apposed from the formal Tudor Monarchies which demanded the right or human being
- The revolution brought realistic constitution. This lead to the country governed by the rule of law all matters of the state follow the principle and law it the country
- Freedom of debate and expression. The England revolution played a very greet role for the rise of democracy. In the world now the parliament was given high states of debating bill so amend law
- The revolution spread the ideas of democracy to other such like French
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795)
The French revolution can simple means the drastic political changes which was made by peasant and workers which were organized by Voltaura, Montesara, Fean Jacarc Rosseau, especially by 1789-1795 to over throw the Tudor Monarchy government under the king Lucas XVI due to its absolution and explanation system
French revolution was complete change in overthrowing existed government under King Louis XVI French revolution it was the one of the greatest
events of human, history which deeply affected men’s idea conduct for many generation within the period it six years eg 1789-1795
events of human, history which deeply affected men’s idea conduct for many generation within the period it six years eg 1789-1795
THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF FRENCH REVOLUTION
– The French revolution which experienced in French. From 1789-1795 was organized by peasant and workers to overthrow the Boubon adlynast under King Louis XIV who were absolute and exploitative in character. Before they were living under despotic rule within rivalry and injustice they were landless and unemployed. The problem of land, heavy taxes collection in French classified in the following group of people as follows:-
- Peasant group
- The bourgeosie group
- The nobility group
- Clergy
CAUSES OF FRENCH REVOLUTION
– Unfair system of the government
– Kings extravagance
– Influence of great French philosopher
– Several social , political condition of France peasant paid direct and indirect tax and bourgeosie paid heavy tax to the king, presence of inequality, injustice and exploitation contributed much to the peasant and bourgeosie to oppose the government
– The influence of American war of independence
CONTRIBUTION OF FRENCH REVOLUTION TO THE RISE OF CAPITALISM
– It lad to the elimination of feudalism August 4, 1789
– Led to the industrialization
– French revolution led to the development of nationalism in France solidarity and unity were very important to the depth the country
– The catholic church and louis XVI and his wife Marrus Antonente were swept away, new leader ( capitalist leader) came into power) king and his unite assassinated
– Led to the development of infrastructure such as expansion of road and railway
– Free enterprises as well as the trade were allowed encourage so as to boost up the economic production
– It led to the establishment of agrarian revolution and abolition of subsistence agriculture hence regular supplier supply of raw materials in industry
CONTRIBUTION OF RRENCH REVOLUTION TO THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY
- French revolution emphasized total respect of the state of individual in regard if nation leader or to be voted as leader this emphasized due to the introduction of new constitution
- The revolution planted human right, equality, liberty in French community and the world at large. This still dominates the democracy of the world
- It led to the emergence of shared of government in which each of the individual in regard of being rich or poor had chance to explain his/her opinion
- French revolution emphasized over freedom of mass media and express of the individual as result promoted more the rise of democracy in the world
- French revolution lead to the development of nationalism France solidarity and unity were very important to the development of democracy.
THE DEMOGRAPHIC REVOLUTION AND SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
The scientific revolution
The scientific revolution
The scientific revolution refers to a period that was characterized with major technological changes that took place in Europe which paved way for the industrial revolution consequently leading to the rise of capitalism. The revolution involved the use of mathematics, experimental methods and practical use of scientific knowledge. It is between 1540 – 1640 years.
The discoveries involved the following;
1 It was due to establishment of the contact between Europe and Asia, especially Asian countries like china, India and middle east. In this contact the Europeans copied and improved the textile industries especially Britain.
2 Due to the break of the crusade war. The war led to the spread of technology to the western European countries because these European countries started to get involved in innovations and discoveries of new technology which could help them to reach in their previous areas to look for raw material and market without passing the Middle East especially near Turkey.
3 The discoveries and the use of coal and iron as the major source of power, this replaced the wind mills hence it influenced the more production of commodities in industries and innovation of other technology especially technology to be used in industries because of availability of power.
4 The exploration of European countries to other parts of the world which accelerated the discovery of the new world as a desire of European to discoveries;
a. The discovery of the steam engine in 1770’s by James Watt. The steam engine led to a revolution in the production process because it contributed to the rise of the factory system.
b. Introduction of new methods of iron production whereby iron was smelted quickly with the help of coke. This new methods increase the production of iron thus contributing to the industrial revolution.
c. New techniques in weaving and spinning cotton and wool were discovered. These new methods modernized textile industries which led to the increase of production and reduction of cost of production.
d. In 1792 Murdock invented the railway locomotive which simplified transportation of raw materials and manufactured goods.
The role of science and technology in the development of industrial revolution
a. Improved the transport system.
The discovery of a railway improved the transport system which made it possible to transport large quantities of raw materials and manufactured goods. The good transport system stimulated industrial development.
b. Increased the level of production.
The introduction of various machines in the production process reduced the dependence on manual labour. The use of machines increased production thus leading to the consolidation and expansion of the industrial revolution.
c. Development of internal trade.
The increase in production of goods stimulated internal trade within Europe. The development of trade encouraged the establishment of more business thus consolidating and expanding industrial development.
d. Destruction of serfdom
The introduction of machines in the production process made many people in the countryside to leave to the towns searching for industrial jobs; this led to the decline of feudalism and consequently the rise of capitalism.
e. Collapse of cottage industries.
The discovery of the steam engine contributed to the development of the factory system which employed thousands of workers. The factory system played a great role in the rise of capitalism; it replaced small cottage industries like windmills.
f. Rise of capitalist class
The discovery of machines led to the rise of the capitalist class, which are people who owned the machines and factories. This class of entrepreneurs invested their money in industries to generate profits thus leading to the development of the industrial revolution.
g. Rise of free trade.
The discovery of machines increased the production of industrial products which led to a decline of prices. The increase in production gave birth to a rise of free trade whereby surplus production was sold off to overseas markets without economic tariffs. The absence of trade restrictions contributed to the consolidation and expansion of the industrial revolution.
The demographic revolution
This refers to the fundamental changes that occurred in the size of population in Europe between the 17th and 18th centuries.
Its believed that the population increased by 48%, example in Britain by 1760AD, the population of Britain was estimated to have been 12 million, by 1831 as ascertained by the census, it had risen to around 24 million.
There are various factors that can be put forward to explain this growth in population, these include the following;
a. Improved medical services.
One of the main causes of this great increase in population was improvement of medical services which reduced death rates. Improved medical services facilitated the control of deadly diseases such as chickenpox and increased the life expectancy in Europe.
b. Early marriages
Early marriages of women played a great role in the growth of population in Europe. Many women reproduced in early age which increased the number of new born babies, the average woman in Britain for instance delivered six children in her life span. This condition with improved medical services, led to a rapid increase in population.
c. Availability of enough food supply.
The increased food supply resulting from the great agricultural improvements of the 18th C contributed significantly to the rapid growth in the population in Europe. The increase in food supply both grain and meat play the part in producing and sustaining a larger population.
d. Political stability
It can be asserted that the long years of internal stability that reduced the death rates might have had a role in the increase of population. The monarchies in Europe especially Britain were able to maintain political stabilities in their countries thus reducing death rates tremendously.
e. Better sanitation
Better sanitation contributed to the demographic revolution in Europe. These services improved the welfare of the people and increased life expectancy. It should be noted that many deadly diseases such as typhoid, dysentery and cholera were eliminated through proper sewage disposal and provision of clean water.
The role of demographic revolution in the rise of capitalism in Europe
The demographic revolution played a fundamental role in supporting the industrial revolution consequently leading to the rise of capitalism. It played the following roles;
a. Provided a ready market.
The huge growth of population, Example from twelve million people in 1760 AD to twenty four in 1830 in Britain provided a ready market for industrial manufactured goods. The existence of ready markets accelerated industrial activities thus the rise of capitalism.
b. Provision of cheap labor.
The demographic revolution contributed to the rise of the working class in Europe. The working class refers to a group of people who do not own anything apart from their labour power. These workers contributed to the rise of capitalism by providing cheap labour in industries.
c. Stimulated inter–regional trade.
The rapid increase in population contributed to inter regional trade which consequently led to the rise of capitalism. The population explosion availed a ready market which stimulated trading activities in Europe. It also made people to abandon subsistence agriculture for economic activities.
d. Development of towns.
The population increase in Europe contributed to the development of towns. The increase in population was followed by massive rural urban migration, the population in towns such as London, tripled by the end of the 18th C; this promoted the provision of various social services such as roads, schools and health centers which were conducive for the industrial revolution.
e. Destruction of the feudal mode of production.
The rapid increase in population contributed to the destruction of the feudal mode of production because; feudal relations could not match the increase in the population. The decline of feudalism paved way for the rise of capitalist.
Impacts of the Demographic Revolution on the development of capitalism in Europe.
i. Enable availability of markets.
ii. Growth of towns and cities
iii. Emergence if researches and invetors led to the rise of scientific to industrial revolution for example harvesting machine.
iv. Enable availability of labour supply.
v. Emergence of working class.
vi. It provide effective and strong capitalist government with increase of people for example in parliament, army increase.
THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY IN EUROPE
Background to the Rise of Democracy in Europe
Democracy can be defined as system of government by the people and for the people. It can also be defined as a form of government in which all people can choose their leaders and hold them accountable for their policies and conduct in office.
Democracy can be defined as system of government by the people and for the people. It can also be defined as a form of government in which all people can choose their leaders and hold them accountable for their policies and conduct in office.
Democracy entails the key elements of basic human rights, free and fair elections and equality of all people before the law.
Background to the Rise of Democracy in Europe
Original of Democracy in the World.
Democracy is said to be originated from two Greek words, namely “Demos” which means rule of power or authority. Generally the term democracy can simply mean the rule of people who are divided by their own concern.
Historically Democracy was said to be practiced for the first time in ancient Greek especially during the 300BC years ago which basically was under direct democratic system. Due to the shortage of number of Authorians in Greek in which who ever in the state had a choice of providing a suggestion so as to promote the social, economic and political matters of the state. Later due to the increase of populations there was a need of indirect democracy (Representatives).
Democracy spread to other ports of the world especially in England and France. It was achieved through revolutions (17th C England and 18th C- France). Later democracy spread to USA, the rise of democracy in America act as the main bridge to the rise abd spread of democracy in the world.
The principle that governed politics in Europe before the rise of democracy
a. Absolutism
This was one of the main principles that governed politics in Europe. Throughout Europe in the period before the French revolution of 1789, the government was in the hands of few individuals. The individuals had absolute power and in most cases their positions were hereditary.
In France, the king was above the law and not controlled by it. He had power to have an individual arrested and imprisoned during “the king’s pleasure” through the famous “letter de cachet”.
b. Divine right of the king.
This was the belief that the power of monarchies was given directly by God and thus monarchs were answerable only to God. Any opposition to the king was an attack on God himself. This was very true in Britain during the reign of king James I. The same situation occurred in France where it was a serious offense to questions the powers of the king, king Louis XIV once remarked that “I am the state”.
c. Feudal order/ feudalism
Before the rise of democracy, Europe was characterized by feudal order/feudalism and privileged classes. Feudalism as practiced in the kingdom of England was a state of human society which was formally structured and stratified on the basis of land tenure. The land lords were part and parcel of the government. In France, the ancient regime was characterized by distinctive classes of the clergy and the nobles.
d. The church and the state were inseparable
There was a strong relationship between the church and the state in Europe before the rise of democracy. The official faith or religion in France was supposed to be Catholics. The pop could even influence the decisions of the kings of France. In Britain, the official faith or religion was Anglican. All members of the royal family had to be Anglicans.
The English revolution (The glorious revolution) 1640 – 1689
The English revolution refers to series of events in Britain that led to the collapse of feudalism and destroyed absolutism and serfdom in Great Britain.
There were series of conflicts in Britain; the commercial bourgeoisie were determined to destroy feudalism. The bourgeoisie wanted to make the crown an overall leader of England without the assistance of the landlords.
Another conflict was the control of the common land because the monarchy was against the enclosure system. Due to these conflicts, the democracy was abolished in 1649 but the king was restored as the head of the state.
The revolution was also characterized with the replacement of the Roman Catholic king, James II with the protestant one, William III.
There was also the passage of the bill of rights which included the following;
a. Any English monarchy must be a member of the Anglican Church.
b. The king has no powers to increase taxes without the general consent of the parliament.
c. The elections of the members of parliament should be free.
d. It declared that there should be frequent parliamentary elections.
Causes of the English revolution
1. Heavy taxation
The merchants were gaining a lot of influence, hence the king decided to impose heavy taxes on the merchants so as to control their growing influence. Taxes hindered business activities which forced the merchants to rise up and overthrow the government.
2. Principle of divine right of the king.
The king argued that he was an absolute and his power could not be questioned by man. The British people wanted this principle to be changed because they wanted a king who will be answerable to them.
3. Role of English philosophers.
The English philosophers also contributed to the pot break of the English. Their writings enlightened the English people about weakness of old system. John Locke an English philosopher attacked the monarchy as being autocratic and oppressive in nature. John Locke wanted a king who will be accountable to the people. These writings partly prompted the English people to stage a revolution.
4. Role of Oliver Cromwell.
Oliver Cromwell contributed to the outbreak of English revolution by uniting the people to remove the dictatorial monarchy. He was protesting against religious discrimination and all forms of dictatorships in England. Oliver Cromwell even suggested that King Charles has to be assassinated to pave a way for the establishment of a new government.
5. Enclosure system.
The enclosure system was an agreement reached in parliament by wealthy landowners to buy small peasants landless consequently the peasants appealed to the king to stop the process of enclosure. The king tried to stop the enclosure system but his actions worsened relations between him and the wealthy.
6. The emergency of classical economists.
The emergence of classical economists played huge role in the outbreak of the English revolution
. Economists such as Adam smith, David Ricardo and Thomas Malthus advocated private property and individual freedom in economic life of a society. Their views brought awareness among the people thus leading to the English evolution.
. Economists such as Adam smith, David Ricardo and Thomas Malthus advocated private property and individual freedom in economic life of a society. Their views brought awareness among the people thus leading to the English evolution.
7. Religious conflicts.
There were religious conflicts in 1531 where king Henry VII declared himself the king of Church of England, this action drew resistance from some of the church which led to the rise of a group known as puritans. The puritans were dissatisfied with the church and decided to separate themselves from the main stream, the king responded by persecuting them and calling them enemies. This led to the outbreak of the English revolution.
8. Emergency of commercial bourgeoisie class.
The emergency of a bourgeoisie class contributed to the outbreak of the English revolution. This class was determined to conduct business activities in England thus any class of people that tried to hinder their goals was overthrown. The monarchy had failed to introduce liberal economic policies that would support capitalism thus the commercial bourgeoisie joined with the peasants to stage the revolution.
9. Maintenance of discriminative classes.
The maintenance of discriminative classes contributed to the outbreak of the English revolution. The nobility and the clergy were the most privileged class. The middle class consisted of professionals and government officials and the last class consisted of the peasants who were very poor. It was the peasants who united with the commercial bourgeoisie to stage a revolution.
The role of English revolution in the rise of capitalism in England
The English revolution played a great role in the development of capitalism in England. The effects of the revolution paved way for the rise of capitalism.
a. Introduction of free trade.
The new government pursued the laissez faire policy whereby it did not intervene in economic activities. The government allowed the domestic economy to operate fairly with few controls. The absence of government interference encouraged the investors to increase production thus leading to the industrial revolution.
b. Seizure of political power by the merchants.
There was seizure of political power by the merchants; this was a fundamental change in Britain because before the revolution all political powers rested in the hands of the king. The merchants played a great role in abolishing feudalism and introduced capitalism.
c. Unification of England.
The unification of England played a great role in the rise of capitalism. The coming together of Britain, Wales, Scotland and Ireland widened the market thus playing a crucial to support the industrial revolution consequently leading to the rise of capitalism.
d. Abolition of serfdom.
The revolution contributed to the abolition of serfdom and absolutism, there was introduction of a constitution rights. The abolition of serfdom created free workers who were needed by capitalist industries thus leading to the rise of capitalism.
e. Control of the church.
There was confiscation of church land and the church was separated from the state, this created room for the introduction of liberal capitalist ideas which supported the rise of capitalism.
f. Land consolidation.
The revolution abolished feudal land tenure system and put land in the hands of the capitalists who carried out mechanized agriculture which paved way for the rise of the agrarian revolution. The agrarian revolution played a great role in the rise of capitalism.
IMPACTS OF THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION
a After the revolution the king became ceremonial title because the one who was given power to control the government was the prime minister under the parliamentary government therefore prime minister became the head of the government and the king became a ceremonial leader.
b Politically the revolution led to the overthrown of the absolute monarchy and the capitalist formed the republic government based on parliamentary supremacy controlled by the capitalists.
c The Capitalist who formed parliamentary government possessed both economic and political power in Britain, this causes changes in English economy for example it led to abolition of internal taxes, barriers which led to promote trading activities in England, freedom of farming and individual enterprises.
d The Royal army and soldiers started to be under the control of the government established by the capitalists.
e The Government funds started to be controlled and approved by the parliament; this means that the parliament had power to budget the government expenditure as it was during monarchy system of the king.
f All the feudalism elements that remained were removed (dismantled) that is, feudalism as a mode of production collapsed completely after the English political revolution.
g The Revolution accumulated wealth, through the illegal ways of accumulating wealth (capital) Primitive accumulation of capital such as; plundering, looting etc and free competition in production was adopted which led merchants to start competing each other in production, this was because of merchants who come into power and who was under the development of capitalism.
h The revolution caused death; many people were badly wounded and there was massive destruction of people’s properties like farms, shops, and workshops.
Contribution of English Revolution to the Rise of Democracy in Britain
i. It brought multiparty political system, basically in Greet Britain where Conservative party and Liberal party were enacted. This give chance to individuals to select the leader of their wishes, hence rise of democracy.
ii. Emergence of shared government. The English revolution of 17th C made the emergence of a shared government between common people and the existing government.
iii. It brought much freedom of worship as they were able to worship the way they wish in any sect.
iv. Respect of human rights. The English revolution gave room to the respect of human right as opposed from the farmer fudor monorchies which demanded the right of human being.
v. The revolution brought realistic constitution. It led to the country governed by the rule of law, all matters of the state follow the principle and law of the country.
vi. Freedom of debate and expression. The England political revolutions played a great role for the rise of democracy in the world. The parliament was given high states of debating bill, to amend laws etc.
vii. The revolutions spreed ideas of democracy to other countries such as France.
The French revolution of 1789 – 1799
The French revolution of 1789 – 1799
A revolution is a gradual or sudden change that takes place in the societies politically, economically and social setup. A revolution occurs not because people are just interested in changes but their certain factors on the ground that forces them to stage a revolution.
The French revolution of 1789 marked a turning point in the political history of France. It destroyed a well established monarchy and replaced it with a republican government.
Causes of the French revolution
a. Financial crisis.
The financial crisis was the most immediate and paramount cause of the French revolution. In 1789, the French national treasury ran bankrupt to the extent of failing to pay workers. The bankrupt was due to the frequent wars which France fought example the seven years war with Britain (1756 – 1763) over colonies in India and Canada, and American war of independence. The bankrupt was also caused by the luxury life at the king’s palace. This crisis worsened the problems of the French thus contributing to the revolution.
b. Despotic aristocracy.
The French aristocracy was despotic; all French kings right from Louis XIV, XV and XVI were despotic kings, whose powers could not be questioned. They possessed all political powers like making all important political decisions and policies. There was no written constitution to check the powers of the king. There was also no written laws to control the actions of the king, this meant that, the king’s word was the law, example king Louis the XVI ones remarked that “something is legal because i wish it” this kind of despotism made the revolution inevitable by 1789.
c. Character of King Louis XVI.
There was a weak administration in France especially that of Louis XVI. He was corrupt, inefficient and inconsistent in his policies, that is he could at times show signs of helping the peasants but shortly thereafter he withdraws his good intention.
Besides the above the king was under the strong influence of his wife Marie Antoinette, she was an Austrian princess who was hated by the French people because she was not ready to help peasants.
d. French class structure.
The maintenance of discriminative classes contributed to the outbreak of the French revolution. The French population was divided into three discriminative classes namely the first estate, second estate and third estate. The first estate consisted of the nobility who enjoyed
the highest salaries and key positions in the government and the military. The second estate comprised of the clergy (Bishops and Priests). This grouped lived in urban areas and owned large estates of land and were exempt from paying taxation. The last class consisted of the peasants who paid all taxes both direct and indirect. The problems of the third estate forced them to stage a revolution in 1789.
the highest salaries and key positions in the government and the military. The second estate comprised of the clergy (Bishops and Priests). This grouped lived in urban areas and owned large estates of land and were exempt from paying taxation. The last class consisted of the peasants who paid all taxes both direct and indirect. The problems of the third estate forced them to stage a revolution in 1789.
e. Intellectual movements.
These intellectual movements especially those of philosophers played a significant role in enlightening the French people about the political and economic crisis in France. They exposed the abuse of power by the government philosophers such as Voltaire advocated for fair taxation policies. Montesquieu advocated for separation of power in the government. The enlightenment of the French people about their political forced them to stage a revolution in 1789.
f. American war of independence.
The American war of independence led to both economic and political effects which were exploited by the rich middle class and the peasants to stage a revolution. Politically this war failed them with a strong desire for establishment of a democratic and constitutional government. Economically, the war partially worsened the financial crisis because it was expensive to maintain soldiers abroad.
g. Economic crisis.
During the 18th C, France experienced a rapid growth in her population and yet the agricultural and industrial production remained low thus leading to food shortage. There was also another problem of unemployment which affected the living standards of the people. Amidst this growing population and unemployment, there was also persistent inflation. These severe conditions forced the French to stage a revolution in 1789.
h. Dismissal of financial controllers.
The dismissal of financial controllers had a role to play in the outbreak of the French revolution. Turgot and Necker had been appointed by the king to oversee the economic condition of France, but these were later dismissed following the advice of the queen. The financial controllers revealed the heavy cost incurred by the king and his members.
i. The march of the women.
The marching of the women at Versailles demanding bread, land and equality sparked off the French revolution. Marie Antoinette provoked the demonstrators by saying that “If you cannot afford bread, go and buy cakes” this statement made both the king and the queen more unpopular in France.
In conclusion by 1789 there was enough material for combustion, what was lacking was a spark to see the materials ablaze. People had enough grievances; all they needed was a leader, thus the mobilization and organization of the middle class made the revolution.
The effects of the French revolution
a. Elimination of feudalism
The French revolution contributed to the elimination of feudalism and the consequent rise of capitalism. The new government that was established after the revolution was abolition of feudalism and introduced capitalist relations of production, whereby the major means of production were controlled by the private sectors.
b. Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
The French revolution contributed to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power. It destroyed the discriminative classes that had made it difficult for anyone in the third estate to rise to power. Following the French revolution, promotion was based on merit and not birth. Napoleon was able to display his skills during the revolution which helped him to rise to power.
c. Development of social infrastructure.
After the election of Napoleon Bonaparte, he improved the social infrastructure system by building more roads and railways and various financial institutions. These changes played a great role in the rise of capitalism in France.
d. Introduction of unity.
The French revolution introduced unity in France, whereby all people were equal before the law. People were free to conduct any type of business of their choice; this is what contributed to the rise of capitalism.
e. Development of nationalism.
The French revolution inspired the spirit of nationalism among the French people. The revolution which advocated for equality, fraternity and liberty became a lesson to the French to fight against absolute monarchies like that of Louis XVI. These ideas were able to spread beyond the French borders.
f. Establishment of a republican government.
The French revolution contributed to the destruction of the bourbon monarchy and put in place a republican government in 1792. This was the government that played a crucial role in the abolition of feudalism and the consequent rise of capitalism.
g. Control of the church.
One of the most important changes of the French revolution was the control of the church. The Bishops were to be paid by the state like any other civil servants, the church was also not supposed to levy taxes. It was completely detached from state affairs.
h. Abolition of slave trade.
The French revolution contributed to the abolition of slave trade in French colonies. The French claimed that slave trade was not in line with its slogan of the revolution thus it had to be abolished.
The 1848 revolutions in Europe
1848 has been regarded as the year of revolution in Europe. The revolutions broke out mainly in France and the Austrian empire. There were mainly directed against the spirit of the Vienna arrangement of 1815. In France, the 1848 revolutions contributed to the downfall of Louis Philippe and his Orleans monarchy, while in Austria Empire the 1848 revolutions lead to the downfall of Metternich.
Common features of the 1848 revolutions
a. Reaction against the Vienna settlement.
The 1848 revolutions were opposed to the Vienna settlement of 1815 thus the revolutions were either nationalists or liberal in nature. In Germany and Italy states, there was a strong feeling for national unity and political independence. In France and Hungary, there were strong feelings for liberal ideas.
b. Urban based revolutions.
The 1848 revolutions were urban centered and with less impact on the country side. They were common in cities like Paris, Berlin, Rome and Milan.
c. Lack of mass mobilization.
The 1848 revolutions was started and led by intel
lectuals such as university professors, poets, journalists and teachers. The merchant class also took an active role in organizing the revolutions. The peasants were not actively involved and perhaps this explains why these revolutions were short lived.
lectuals such as university professors, poets, journalists and teachers. The merchant class also took an active role in organizing the revolutions. The peasants were not actively involved and perhaps this explains why these revolutions were short lived.
d. Reaction against the side effects of the industrial revolution.
The 1848 revolutions erupted in less industrialized countries of Europe such as France and Austria whose economies were based on agriculture. The spread of the industrial revolution from Britain led to various effects which left many people dissatisfied. The workers were exploited and oppressed through low wages and long working hours.
e. Promotion of the French revolutionary ideals.
The 1848 revolutions promoted the ideals of the French revolution. There was a lot in common between the 1848 revolutions and the French revolution. There was formation of national guards to protect the gains of the revolutions, liberal constitutions were advocated for to protect peoples’ political liberty.
f. Short lived revolutions.
Most of the 1848 revolutions failed by the end of 1849 to achieve their desire and goals, they were only partially successful in France where the Orleans monarchy was forced out of power. The provisional government that was established was too weak to solve the problems of the French population.
In the case of Austrian empire, the 1848 revolution in Piedmont, Hungary and Prussia to a certain extent forced the respective governments to grant liberal constitutions but by the end of 1849 they were defeated and the constitutions were withdrawn.
Causes of the 1848 revolutions in Europe
a. Nationalism
Politically there was a strong spirit of nationalism among the Italians and Germans. They resented foreign domination of Austria and strongly advocated for national unity and national political independence. The spirit of nationalism thus contributed to the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions.
b. Liberal constitutions (liberalism).
The desire for liberalism had grown too strong especially in France and hungry. People demanded for political reforms of the existing political systems. They advocated for constitutional governments which by then were lacking. In France, Louis Philippe had risen to power on the ticket of preserving constitutional rights of the French people but by 1848 the French were still denied expansion of franchise (voting rights).
In Hungary, the people demanded for independence and constitutional parliaments so that their political rights could be protected.
c. Widespread discontent.
The Metternich system had caused a lot of discontent in the Austrian empire. There was a package of strict regulations introduced by Metternich to preserve the spirit and arrangement of the Vienna settlement. Metternich always used force to check the growth of liberalism and nationalism. In 1819, he introduced the Carls bad law which banned people’s freedom. The press was concerned, political parties were banned and nationalist leaders were imprisoned. These conditions forced people to stage the 1848 revolutions.
d. Economic problems.
The spread of the industrial revolution to the Austrian empire and France had side effects which forced the people to join the 1848 revolutions. The industrial revolution was championed by the capitalists who wanted to maximize profits by exploiting the workers. There was mass unemployment, low wages and long working hours. The masses demanded economic reforms but their respective governments were slow to respond thus they decided to stage a revolution.
e. Role of the socialists.
The ideas of socialism contributed to the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions in Europe. The socialists mobilized the workers into a strong force that played an active part in the 1848 revolutions. The workers were promised better working and living conditions.
f. Natural calamities.
Natural calamities partly sparked off the 1848 revolutions in France and the Austrian empire between 1846 and 1847, there was general bad weather in Austrian empire and France which was characterized by heavy rains which destroyed crops. The poor harvests were followed by severe food shortages. To make matters worse, there was an outbreak of epidemics such as typhoid and cholera. These conditions create a good atmosphere for the 1848 revolutions.
g. Chain reaction.
The success of the revolution in France of February 1848 inspired similar revolutions throughout the Austrian empire because of common existing political, social and economic conditions. Following the revolution in France, Louis Philippe and his Orleans monarchy was pushed out of power. In March, the revolution spread to piedmont, Sicily and Prussia. It is from this point that historians concluded that “whenever France coughs, the rest of Europe catches cold” the revolution in France provided a practical example to the already discontented masses in the Austrian empire.
Conclusion
Therefore, it follows from the above that the 1848 revolutions, mainly broke out because of paramount political consideration the social and economic distress only facilitated the pace of the revolutionary mood.
Role of the 1848 revolutions in the rise of democracy
a. Establishments of constit
utions.
utions.
The revolutions took place in 1848 contributed to the rise of democracy by facilitating the establishment of constitutions. During the 1848 revolutions, people demanded for political reforms of the existing political systems. They advocated for parliamentary democracy and constitutional governments which by then were lacking. In France, the Orleans monarchy was removed from power and constitutional government was established.
b. Demise of feudalism.
The 1848 revolutions contributed to the destruction of feudalism and serfdom in Europe which contributed to the rise of democracy. The absolute monarchies were part and parcel of feudalism and serfdom thus creating a good atmosphere for the rise of democracy.
c. Rise of national consciousness.
1848 revolutions played a crucial role in the rise of national consciousness (feeling) in Europe which contributed to the rise of democracy. In German and Italian states, there was a strong national feeling that aimed at achieving national unity and national political independence.
d. Overthrow of the papacy regimes
The 1848 revolutions played a great role in the overthrow of the papacy regimes in Italy consequently contributing to the rise of democracy in Europe. Republican such as Mazzini and Garibaldi contributed significantly to the unification of Italy which laid a foundation for the establishment of democracy.
e. Emergency of the capitalist class.
The 1848 revolutions contributed to the rise of democracy in Europe by destroying feudalism and paving way for the rise of the merchant class which was very fundamental in the rise of capitalism and democracy in Europe.
Conclusion
Although the 1848 revolutions generally failed, they provided important lessons for future nationalists and liberal leaders. They lead the ground for future dynamic and strong leadership that played a great role in the Italian and German unification. In case of Italy, they lead to the rise of count Camilla Carvour and victor Emmanuel II. In case of Germany, there was the rise of Otto Von Bismarck.
IMPERIALISM AND TERRITORIAL DIVISION OF THE WORLD (COLONIZATION OF AFRICA)
IMPERIALISM
Imperialism can be defined as the expansion beyond one’s border, either by conquest, influence or by both. It involves one going beyond borders searching for market and raw materials.
TYPES OF CAPITALISM:-
∙ Commercial capitalism (1500 – 1750) or mercantilism
∙ Competitive / industrial capitalism (1750 – 1875)
∙ Monopoly / Finance capitalism (1875 – present)
COMMERCIAL CAPITALISM / MERCHANT CAPITALISM:-
During this stage, Europeans closed their borders in search of precious metals such as gold and silver. The powers were not interested in the social and economic transformation of the societies they met, they were only interested in plundering and raiding.
Although this type of capitalism was characterized by primitive accumulation of capital,it also stimulated the industrial revolution in Europe.
COMPETITIVE / INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM:-
This type of capitalism was characterized by the mushrooming of many manufacturing industries that were small in size but competing in the production and maximization of profit. The main objectives of this type of capitalism were to:-
(i) Acquire markets for European manufactured goods.
(ii) Procure raw materials.
During the industrial capitalism, there is a bitter struggle among capitalistic for increasing production levels so as to maximize profits. In the course of these struggles some capitalists are destroyed while others grow rich; therefore to survive the capitalists must increase labor productivity which is done through the introduction of more efficient machines.
Features of competitive industrial capitalism:-
(i) The role of the state is minimal because of the belief in free trade policy or sometimes called “Laissez faire” policy under free trade, the production and distribution of goods and services is determined by the market forces and not the state.
(ii)Most enterprises are small and competitive, they complete among themselves to increase production and maximize profits.There is nor Monopoly in the markets or investments.
(iii) Tariff policies are still protective in character that is they aim at protecting home industries.
(iv) Banks are not controlling production; they are only agents of payments that are receiving deposits.
(v) Raw materials are important but not crucial, that is the European powers could do without raw materials from Africa.
Effects of competitive capitalism in Africa:-
(a) Abolition of slave trade.
The European powers abolished slave trade in Africa so as to get markets where they can sell their manufactured goods and raw materials.The European powers wanted the market but slaves would not provide them, hence this necessitated the abolition of slave trade.
(b) Introduction of legitimate trade.
Legitimate trade refers to the type of trade that involved the buying and selling of natural resources; the European powers introduced legitimate trade which would make it possible to get raw materials such as palm oil, rubber and coffee needed by the European powers.
(c) Division of Africa among the European trading companies that shared Africa amongst them.
These companies included British South Africa company that controlled South Africa, Zimbabwe + Zambia while the imperial British East Africa company controlled Uganda, Kenya and Zanzibar. These companies were searching for markets and raw materials that were needed by their respective government.
These companies included British South Africa company that controlled South Africa, Zimbabwe + Zambia while the imperial British East Africa company controlled Uganda, Kenya and Zanzibar. These companies were searching for markets and raw materials that were needed by their respective government.
(d) Fall and rise of some states.
Competitive industrial capitalism led to the fall some states in Africa because it involved the abolition of slave trade on which some states like Dahomey depended on, it also contributed to the rise of states because African state accumulation a lot of wealth out of the legitimate trade which was used to build states such as the Kingdom of King Jaja of Opobo.
(e) Influx of foreigners.
It let to the influx of many foreigners, especially Europeans. Thes
e groups of Europeans included Explorers, Missionaries and traders, who later on paved way for the colonization of Africa by Europe.
e groups of Europeans included Explorers, Missionaries and traders, who later on paved way for the colonization of Africa by Europe.
MONOPOLY CAPITALISM
Monopoly capitalism was characterized by the predominance of monopolies. Monopolies were formed to reduce stiff competition in the production process.
It is subdivided into:-
(a) 1830 – 1947
This was characterized by colonization of territories by individual countries.
(b) 1947 – present:-
This was characterized by colonization of territories by more than one country.
Characteristics of Monopoly Capitalism.
Lenin identified five characteristics of monopoly capitalism:-
a. Concentration and centralization of capital.
Under monopoly capitalism, Production becomes more concentrated and centralized under one big company.
Monopoles may also set prices very low with objectives of preventing more industries joining the market, so that they can maintain their monopoly.
b. Merging of bank capital and industrial capital to form finance capital.
In their drive for more profit, monopolistic companies did not confine only on the production of commodities but also invest in the banking sector. Under monopoly capitalism, bank does not only act as agents of payments but also control production boards on monopolistic companies such as British Petroleum (BP) and General Motors’ (GM).
c. Export of capital as opposed to export of commodities.
Under Monopoly capitalism, monopolistic companies dominated the production and market in their countries but they now cross their borders to control market and production in other countries hence they turn into international monopolistic associations. These associations divide the world among themselves; examples are General motors (GM), British Petroleum (BP) and Moil Company.
d. Completion of division of the world among the imperialist powers.
During this stage all countries are drawn in to the orbit of capitalism. The colonial system became part of the capitalist world economy whereby the capitalist sought for colonies to satisfy the needs of capitalism. These needs included market, raw materials, cheap labour and investment areas. When the 19th which came close world capitalism retained all the basic features of capitalism while it developed new ones.
THE RISE OF GERMANY , ITALY AND ITS IMPACT
Nationalism can be defined as the desire to be free from foreign rule or occupation. European nationalism was a manifestation of the political will of the Europeans to free themselves from foreign domination and oppression.
Nationalism in various European countries aimed at uniting the nations and liberates them from foreign control; this is what led to the German and Italian unification.
Since 1700, Nationalism became an important force in international relations; the development of European nationalism was closely linked with the development of monopoly capitalism. Due to the demands of monopoly capitalism, three was a need to protect none markets but protecting the markets meant unification which was achieved through nationalism.
The rise of nationalism occurred along with the development of a political unit which is called a nation/state.
Factors that contributed to the rise of European nationalism
(a) Development of monopoly capitalism.
Due to the demands of monopoly capitalism, there was a need to protect home markets but this meant unification which had to be achieved by getting rid of colonial rule.
(b) Dislike of foreign rule.
The major goal of nationalism was to unite the nations and free those from foreign rule or dominations, this goal led to the German and Italian unification that were protesting against French occupation.
(c) Education.
Education exposed the evils of colonial rule, hence stimulating nationalistic sentiments (feelings). Education made it possible for people to speak the same language, hence cultivating a strong sense of unity which facilitated the development of a main state.
(d) Improved communication.
The improvement of communication made it possible for people to travel from one place to another which cultivated a sense of unity that contributed to the rise of European nationalism.
THE ITALIAN UNIFICATION 1820 – 1870.
The Italian had been subjected to foreign domination’s for many years for example, towards the end of the 19th Century; Napoleon invaded Italy in the famous Italian campaign whereby the Italians were put under French control.
Following Napoleons’ defeat in 1815, the Italians were again subjected to Australian domination until 1870 when they regained. The Italian disliked foreign domination and on the growth of nationalism, different nationalist movements were organized by different leaders.
(i) In 1820, they formed the carbonari movement which was mainly an organization of intellectuals.
(ii) In 1831, Givseppe Mazzini founded the young Italy movement.
There were various stages in the Italian unification in which different territories were liberated from Austrian control. It should be noted that the liberation of Rome completed the Italian unification. The greatest maker of the Italian unification was Count Camillo Cavo.
Obstacles in the Italian unification before 1850
(a) The position of pope and the influence of the Catholic Church.
The pope could not fight with Austria because it was a major Catholic state and consequently feared opposition from all Catholics. Without the support of the pope, the unification of Italy was impossible. The pope enjoyed international sensitivity from all the Catholics of the world thus attacking the pope would force ambitious Catholic state to protect the pope.
(b) Military superiority of the Australian.
The Austrian empire had a well trained organized and equipped army. The Austrians also had a well established spying network on the other hand; the Italian nationalists were not military strong by 1848. The carbonari movement and young Italy movement did not have organized armies.
(c) Metternich and the Metternich system.
Metternich had divided Italy into small and different states, each with its own parliament. The Italians were one nationality but they could not agree on a single plan because of the political meetings, associations and freedom of the press were banned. A strong detective system kept Metternich informed of all those movements that were fighting for independence and they were consequently controlled.
(d) Economic backwardness of Italy.
Economic backwardness of the Italian states partly hindered the struggle for independence. The Italians depended largely on subsistence farming, the level of education were also low. There were also small middle class to champion a serious revolution against the Austrians. The Italian economy lacked a strong industrial sector, thus without a sound economic base, the nationalist movements were frustrated due to financial difficulties.
(e) Lack of a clear and able leadership.
This was a great hindrance in the struggle for independence before 1849. The Italians lacked ready and determined leadership against Austrian domination. King Charles Albert of Piedmont would have united the Italians if he had accepted to lead the revolution in 1848, but he feared Austrian might and he reluctantly accepted the offer.
(f) Lack of mass mobilization.
Most Italians up to 1849 were not nationally conscious of the need for unification and independence. The Carbonari movement was simply on organization of intellectuals, while the young Italian movements tried to use the youth to appeal to all sections of the masses, thus these movements failed to win enough support from the masses.
THE GERMAN UNIFICATION 1820 – 1871.
For a long period, German states were victims of foreign domination, under Napoleon Bonaparte, the German states were grouped together to form the Rhine confederation, which was put under French control.
After the downfall of Napoleon, the German states were again grouped together to form the German confederation, which was put under Austrian control.
Between 1815 and 1848, the forces of nationalism became very strong and the Germans began demanding for a united and a free Germany, but with little success because of the following obstacles.
(a) Disunity at the Frankfort parliament.
The members of the parliament lacked a common plan; the nationalists wanted a united and free Germany, while the liberals wanted a democratic and a constitutional government. There were also divisions based on religion, whereby the Catholics wanted Austrian leadership to remain and the Protestants (Anglicans) wanted a united Republic.
(b) Austrian Military might.
The Austrians had a well trained, equipped and a large army contrary to the Germans who lacked a strong and an organized army thus without it, they found it difficult to defeat the Austrians, so as to regain their independence.
(c) Lack of a sound economy.
German states depended on agriculture as the basis of their economy. Transport and communication were not yet well developed, hence without a sound economic base; the Germans could not strengthen their military power and mobilize the local population against the Austrians.
(d) Lack of able leadership.
The revolution in PRUSSIA lacked a strong and able leadership against Austria domination. King Fredrick William IV of Prussia would have led the revolution but he was opposed to liberalism, thus without a capable and able leadership, the nationalists movements failed to achieve their objectives by 1849.
(e) Foreign intervention of Russia.
Czar Nicholas I was opposed to liberal movements both in Russia and its neighbours. He had used the military to crash liberal movements in Russia.
It was therefore not a surprise that the establishment of a liberal government in Germans would face opposition from Russia, indeed in 1849; Russia sent her troops to crash liberal movements in Germany.
Despite all their problems, German unification was attained in 1871 and the German empire was proclaimed at Versailles.
IMPACTS/ EFFECTS OF EUROPEAN NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
1. European nationalism led to the emergence of new states such as Greece, Belgium, Italy, Germany, etc. This was because these nations unified themselves in order to be strong and be able to compete with the former strong nations such as France and Britain, in terms of market, raw materials, industrialization, military and areas for investment.
2. Led to intensification of national rivalries and antagonism among European powers. This was because the former big powers which were France and Britain started to be in antagonism with the newly unified nations like Germany and Italy in terms of raw materials, areas for investments and markets.
3. It led to emergence of hostile military alliance which were the triple alliance and the triple entente of Britain, France and Russia.
4. It led to the disturbance of balance of power in Europe. The balance of power which was agreed at the Vienna congress in 1815 was upset by Germany after it had undergo unification because after unification Germany started to be powerful in terms of military, industrialization, monopolization of trade, look for market, areas for investment and therefore the power which was formerly dominated was now disturbed by the newly unified countries.
5.It led to the breakout of the world war i.e. World War I and World War II; this wars affected world socially, economically and politically.
6.The Unification led to the rise of the new imperialism in Europe from 1850’s.
This was because European nationalism accelerated the rise and development of nationalism in Europe which brought expansionist tendencies among European powers to go in other parts of the world to expand their boundaries.
EFFECTS OF EUROPEAN NATIONALISM IN AFRICA.
1. It led to the influx of agents of colonialism in Africa like explorers, missionaries, and traders who searched the information about the potential strategic and navigable rivers of Africa and they sent information to their countries about the wealth found in African continent.
2. Led to the scramble for African continent; this was because those agents of colonialism started to explore and search the potential information about African continent. Example fertile soil for agriculture, navigable rivers, i.e. Niger delta, Congo basin etc. mining areas and thereafter their mother nations rushed to Africa to look for those areas.
3. Led to the partition of Africa after the scramble which was done by European big powers about the potential of African continent; therefore the partition of Africa was done during the Berlin conference of November 1884 to February 1885.
4. Led to colonization of Africa in the last quarter of the 19th C where by the big powers after the scramble for Africa were able to control Africa in all aspects in order to protect and satisfy European interests especially for the development of capitalism in Europe.
5. Led to the establishment of colonial state as an extension of metropolitan rule (colonial rule) in Africa, therefore the work of colonial state was to make sure that the interest of colonialism like the establishment of colonial economy such as plantations settlers and peasant economy, mining, establishment of administration etc. was to be achieved for the interests of colonialist.
6. It led to the establishment of colonial economy in African continent which was the work done by colonial state in order to make sure that European colonialists should continue on the expense of Africans.
7. Led to destruction of African culture by introducing European culture. Example African culture practices things such as traditions, customs, norms, dressing styles, eating, marriage, etc. were totally forbidden and destroyed by Europeans.
8.Led to the outbreak of the world wars i.e. WWI of 1914-1918 and WWII of 1939-1945, these world wars affected Africa in all aspects of life such as occurrence of deaths, famine, Economic hardship, change of colonial masters etc.
MANIFESTATIONS OF EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN THE 19TH CENTURY
Military alliances and the notion of European balance of power
A. MILITARY ALLIANCES:-
The defeat of France during Franco – Prussian war of 1871 had a tremendous impact in Europe. Before the war, the European powers were Britain and France but after the war, the new powers were Britain and Germany which meant that there was a shift in the balance of power.
After the defeat of France, Bismarck directed his efforts to isolate France in order to maintain her in a weak and defeated position by farming military alliances.
Bismarck forged military alliances with different European countries, this included;
(a) The Dual Alliance of 1879.
In 1879, Germany and Austrian – Hungary signed a treaty which formed a defensive alliance called the “dual Alliance” This alliance was intended to strengthen and protect Germany from France and at the same time protect Austria – Hungary against Russia. By 1870, Austria – Hungary was threatened by Russian Army ships in the Balkan regions and feared that Russia might attack her.
(b) The Triple Alliance of 1882.
In 1882, Bismarck formed the Triple Alliance which was intended to be defensive and to completely isolate and weaken France. The triple alliance came into existence by admitting Italy into the “Dual Alliance”.
France and Italy had both been interested in Tunisia; Italy became frustrated and started looking for alliance against France. The Triple alliance would therefore defend Germany, Austria and Italy.
(c) The Dual Alliance of 1892.
By 1992, both France and Russia felt insecure and they decided to make a defensive agreement called the Dual Alliance against the triple alliance of 1882. In this alliance, the two powers agreed to help each other incase of an attack by Germany.
(d) The Anglo – Japanese Alliance of 1902.
For many years Britain had concentrated on looking after vast empire and had kept out of European affairs, this policy was known as splendid isolation. When her colonial rural such as France and Russia combined to form the dual alliance of 1892; Britain was forced to forge an alliance with Japan with the objective of protecting her economic interests in the Far East.
(e) The Triple Entente of 1907.
In 1907, Russia was admitted into the “Dual alliance”, which led to the formation of the Triple Entente, consulting of Britain, Russia and Japan. These powers agreed to help each other in case of war.
In order to maintain stability in Europe, the European powers adopted the nation of balance of power.
The causes of militarism and arms race in Europe in the 19thC.
Arms race, refers to the intense competition between nations to accumulate technologically advanced and military strategic weapon system. The most prominent instance of such competition was the rapid developed by the USA and the soviet union of more and better nuclear weapons during the cold war.
The term arms race its original usage describes a competition between two or more parties for military supremacy. Each party. Competes to produce large number of weapons, greater armies or superior military technology.
Factors for the Arms Race.
Some of the factors for Arms Race in Europe are;
i. The need to maintain balance of power among nations so that no one nations should military be threat to other.
ii. The cold war that existed between U.S.A and U.S.S.R and their respective camps.
iii. The developed world war was looking for more influence and control in the third world countries and other saw armament as a way of
increasing that capacity
increasing that capacity
iv. Armed race was meant to scare other countries of the world and make them fear the big powers such as U.S.A and U.S.S.R.
IMPACTS OF THE ARMED RACE
The following are some of the impacts of the armed race
i. Many people lost their lives due to the use of nuclear or chemical weapons e.g:- Nagasaki and Hiroshima in Japan during the second
world war.
world war.
ii. It reduced the level of resources that could have been utilized in the provision of social and economic welfare of the people in the super
power states and the world countries
power states and the world countries
iii. It sharpened the hostility between western block under U.S.A and Eastern Block under U.S.S.R.
iv. The emergence of terrorists. Using various weapons of mass destruction.
B. THE NOTION OF EUROPEAN BALANCE OF POWER.
This refers to a policy whereby European powers used military alliances as the determining factor in maintaining stability in Europe.
The factors that led to the use of this policy:-
(a) Rise of European nationalism.
During this period, colonies were seen as a sign of prestige. They became a test and proof of a nation’s superiority. This belief was bound to force the European powers to look for colonies in Europe, thus disturbing the balance of power.
(b) Development of monopoly capitalism.
The development of capitalism to the monopoly stage had various demands in Europe. Due to monopoly capitalism, there was need for raw materials, markets and cheap labour which could only be satisfied through acquiring colonies. To prevent European countries from searching for colonies in Europe, the European powers adopted the notion of European balance of power so as to maintain stability.
(c) Emergence of Germany and Italy.
After Germany and Italy achieved their unification, they joined the race for colonies to meet the demands of monopoly capitalism. To maintain stability in Europe, The European powers decided to adopt a notion
of European balance of power.
of European balance of power.
Due to monopoly capitalism, there was a need for markets, raw materials and investment areas. Their needs could only be achieved by acquiring colonies but the European countries were not supposed to look for colonies inside Europe, thus an outlet had to be created and this led to the scramble for and partition of Africa.
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIALISM IN AFRICA
Colonialism refers to the domination or control of one country by another economically, politically and socially.
Reasons for the colonization of Africa
The development of capitalism in Europe led to the industrial revolution which started in Britain in 1750 and by the end of 18th Century Britain was the only industrialized nation in the world. However, in the 19th Century, other European countries such as France, Belgium, Germany and Italy also industrialized.
The industrialization of almost all European countries meant that there was no where to expand within Europe, hence there was need to find colonies.
From 1870, monopoly capitalism demanded for the following:-
– Markets
– Raw materials
– Cheap labor
– Investment areas
– Areas to resettle surplus labour force.
Therefore, it was these demands which made capitalism to change to its monopolistic stage called “imperialism”.
Colonialism was therefore linked with the development of capitalism in Europe, in the sense that it was undertaken to meet the demands of monopoly capitalism.
AGENTS OF IMPERIALISM
Before the establishment of colonialism, the capitalist nations sent colonial agencies to pave way for colonial rule. These agents included;
– Explorers
– Missionaries
– Traders
⮚ How explorers, Missionaries and traders paved way for establishment of colonial rule in Africa.
(a) They reported about the wealth in Africa which would enrich the European capitalist countries. The information given by the Missionaries, Explorers and Traders excited the interests of European countries to come and seek their fortune in Africa. Dr. Living stone reported that East Africa had fertile soil and the environment was suitable for European settlements, given the economic conditions in Europe, such as the need for raw materials, they had to rush to Africa.
(b) They encouraged African chiefs to sign treaties which later became justified claims for the occupation of African territories. Moffat, an Anglican Missionary, encouraged chief Lubengula to sign a treaty with British, which eventually led to the British colonization of Zimbabwe.
(c) Some of the agents for example Christian missionaries’ brain washed the minds of the Africans through their preaching and teachings. They softened the minds of the Africans to be God fearing because of the preaching, devour African Christians believed that Christianity was the greatest gift from Europe and this was reflected in Nigeria and Buganda where the Africans welcomed colonization.
(d) The Christian missionaries paved way for the establishment of the colonies rule because they regarded colonial rule as necessary for both
the spread of Christianity and the abolition of slave trade in Africa
the spread of Christianity and the abolition of slave trade in Africa
(e) They chartered companies laid down the initial infrastructure those later facilitated colonial administration policies. The roads and railways
became a source of reinforcement in terms of troops and manpower.
became a source of reinforcement in terms of troops and manpower.
(f) They appealed to European government to come and occupy parts of Africa which they have visited and developed. For example
Dr. Livingstone appealed to Britain to come and occupy central Africa and Britain responded by colonizing central Africa.
Dr. Livingstone appealed to Britain to come and occupy central Africa and Britain responded by colonizing central Africa.
SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA
As capitalism developed stage by stage, it pressed different demands on Africa. During competitive industrial capitalism, the capitalist powers advocated for the abolition of slave trade because it was seen as a necessary for the acquisition of raw materials and markets. When competitive capitalism changed to monopoly capitalism, the capitalist powers were involved in a struggle to acquire colonies, a process called “The scramble for Africa.”
The scramble for Africa refers to the way European powers struggled to acquire colonies in Africa.
Partition of Africa refers to the difference steps taken by the colonial powers to divide Africa into territories and fixing colonial boundaries.
The major powers that were involved in this exercise were Britain, Germany, France and Belgium.
There were two theories that explain the scramble for and partition of Africa namely:-
A. AFRO-CENTRIC THEORY (Marxist theory)
This theory claimed that the factors that led to the scramble for and partition of Africa were economic.
(i) The need for monopoly markets.
The need for monopoly markets came due to increase production of industrial products that lacked enough demands in Europe. To make matters worse, between 1823 and 1896, the world passed through a stand still economic depression where by trade came to stand still, prices were law and profits were small hence the capitalists put a lot of pressure on their government to acquire colonies for selling the manufactured commodities.
(ii) The need for tropical raw material.
The tropical treasure theory, put forward by Nobson and Lenin assert that Africa was partitioned because it was highly endowed with a lot of raw materials for industrial development in Europe hence the European powers rushed to Africa to acquire colonies that would act as sources of raw materials.
(iii) The need for cheap labour.
There was a contradiction between the employers and the workers whereby to maximize profits, the employers had to decrease wages and intensify exploitation. The workers, however resisted this through trade unions, they demanded higher wages and good working conditions all of which reduced the profit of the employers. The solution to this problem was to look for colonies in Africa where they can get cheap labour.
(iv) The need for investment areas.
Scholars such as Adam Smith claimed that the availability of excess capital for investments in European countries forced Europe to take part in the scramble for Africa. The capitalists had accumulated a lot of capital that they could not invest in Europe because the markets were saturated, to solve this crisis, they decided to look for colonies where they can invest their capital and obtain high rates of profits.
(v) The need to resettled surplus labour force.
The industrial revolution and the capitalist system produced not only surplus capital but also surplus labour force. As more and more machines came into use, more and more people found themselves out of work, the solution to this problem was found in the acquisition of colonies where surplus labor force could be settled.
B: EUROPEAN THEORY:-
This theory claims that political and social factors caused the scramble for Africa.
(i) Before the Franco – Prussian war 1871, the major European powers were Britain and France was defeated by Germany and she lost her territories of Alsace and Lorraine which were rich in coal and iron. The emergence of Germany changed the balance of power and this forced her to rush to Africa to acquire colonies. The defeat of France made her to rush to Africa to acquire colonies as a way of compensating for the loss in Europe.
(ii) Rise of European nationalism.
During the mid 19th century, a tide of nationalism was seeping across Europe, extreme nationalism let to slogans like, “my country right or wrong” During this period, the possession of an Empire was seen as a test of nations strength , hence European powers rushed to Africa to acquire more and more colonies thus causing scramble.
Social factors:-
(i) Need to stop slave trade.
The European powers asserted that, they came to Africa to acquire colonies because of the need of stopping slave trade. They claimed that colonial rule was a necessity if slave trade was to be abolished completely in Africa.
(ii) Need to introduce Western Civilization.
The European powers argued that their civilization had reached the highest possible standards, thus they had a duty to impose it on those people who were not civilized, the Africans were believed to be uncivilized hence they struggled for colonies so as to introduce Western civilization.
Strategic factors
Strategic factors were also one of the factors that led to the scramble for and partition of Africa. Britain controlled Uganda because she wanted to protect the source of river Nile; She controlled Kenya because of the sea route to India.
Britain and France struggled for Egypt because of the Suez Canal which shortened the route to India.
THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884 – 1885.
The Berlin conference gave international recognition to a struggle for colonies that had been going on for a long period of time. By the 1880’s the scramble for colonies in Africa had reached serious proportions and there were dangers that if it was not controlled, a major war may erupt among the European powers.
To avoid the war, the chancellor of Germany, Otto Van Bismarck convened an international conference of European powers that had interests in Africa.
The conference took place between November 1884 and February 1885. The main aim of the conference was to ensure that the scramble for and partition of Africa takes place peacefully without resulting to a war.
Various European powers attended the conference, these included Britain, France, Germany, Spain and Belgium. Denmark and the USA attended as observers.
– Principles of Berlin Conference
During the conference, a number of resolutions were reached by the European powers.
These included the following;
(a) The principle of effective occupation.
This principle stated that all European powers that had colonies in Africa had to effectively control their colonies by establishing infrastructures such as roads and railways. The powers also agreed to maintain
law and order in their colonies.
law and order in their colonies.
(b) Notification principles
This principle stated that in the process of colonial acquisition, the European powers had to notify or inform other powers about their colonial possessions so as to minimize clashes over the same colonies because the aim of the conference was to ensure that the scramble and partition of Africa takes place peacefully.
(c) Fire navigation on the Niger and Congo basins.
The European powers agreed that the Niger and the Congo basins will be free for navigation by all European powers. This was to avoid any European power from monopolizing the two water ways which may cause conflicts.
(d) Abolition of slave trade.
The European powers agreed to stop slave trade in their colonies and introduce legitimate trade. Legitimate trade would enable the capitalist powers to acquire markets and raw materials which were the needs of monopoly capitalism.
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN AFRICA
The partition of Africa marked the end of Africans political independence and the beginning of subjection to foreign rule. In the process of establishing colonial rule, the Europeans powers used different techniques depending on the nature and attitude of the native population towards colonial intrusion.
These techniques included the following:-
(a) Treaty signing.
This was one of the most common techniques used by the Europeans to establish colonial rule in Africa. This method was used in areas that did not oppose the establishment of colonial rule. The colonial powers convinced African local leaders to sign treaties of protection, protecting them against their local and foreign rivals. It should be noted that these treaties were used by the colonial powers to control African territories. In Tanganyika Karl Peters signed treaties with African chiefs which led to German colonization of Tanganyika.
(b) Use of force.
Sometimes, the colonial powers used the military to establish colonial rule in Africa. This method was used in areas that resisted the establishment of colonial rule in East Africa, the Germans used the military against the Hehe in Tanganyika, and the British used the military against the Nandi in Kenya and Kabalega of Uganda. The colonial powers used the military because they were determined to exploit African resources.
(c) Alliances
This method was mainly used in areas where two societies were in conflicts in situation of enmity, the colonial powers allied with one society against the other and finally control all of them together. In Tanganyika the Germans allied with the Sangu and Bena against the Hehe, but after defeating the Hehe the Germans controlled all of them together. In central Africa, the British allied with chief Lewanyika of Lozi Kingdom against Lobengula but when Lobengula was defeated, the British controlled all of them together.
(d) Gun butt diplomacy.
This is the colonial powers used treaties of force rather than force itself to force Africans to submit to colonial rule. This method was used by the German in 1884 to force a Sultan of Zanzibar to submit to Karl Peters treaty. In 1897, the British used this method to force Jaja of Opobo to submit to their control.
(e) Mercenary technique.
This was a method whereby the colonial powers used Africans to fight against other Africans. The Africans, who were used had no blood ties with those being invaded. In Tanganyika the Germans used the Rugaruga to defeat their fellow Africans.
AFRICAN REACTION TOWARDS COLONIAL RULE
The imposition of colonial rule in Africa did not go unchallenged, the Africans reaction to colonial rule was not homogeneous it varied from one society to another.
The techniques which the Africans used against the colonial rules establishment included the following:-
(a) Active resistance.
This was a physical African reaction characterized by the use of arms or violence against the establishment of colonial rule. Sometimes, active resistances was a spontaneous reaction while in some societies, it needed long preparations. Active resistance occurred in societies that were economically strong and capable of staging a strong resistance. This method was used by the Hehe in Tanganyika against the Germans and the Nandi against the British in Kenya.
(b) Passive resistance.
This was a form of African reaction against colonial rule and penetration which did not involve the use of arms or violence but the colonized people simply refused to cooperate or to have any contacts with the colonizers. This form of African reaction was due to natural calamities such as diseases that hindered the Africans to stage an active resistance. The Maasai for example are naturally war like people but during the establishment of colonial rule, they reacted passively because they had been weakened by Cholera.
(c) Adaptation technique.
This was used where the African ruling class sought friendship from the colonizers so that they can get arms and new fighting techniques. It should be noted that these arms and the new fighting tactics, were used against the same colonizers who gave them the arms. Adaptation technique was used by King Menelik of Ethiopia who sought friendship from the Italians to obtain guns, but he used the same weapons to defeat the Italians in 1895.
THE DEFEAT OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES
Most of the African societies which decided to oppose colonial rule were defeated by the European powers.
There were various factors that contribute to the defeat of African resistances.
1. Military weakness of the Africans.
The African societies had inferior weapons compared to the Europeans; Most of Africans were using spears and arrows and yet the Europeans were using machine guns. The possession of this powerful weapon contributed to the defeat of resistances such as that of the Hehe against the Germans in Tanganyika and the Nandi resistance against the British in Kenya.
2. Lack of national consciousness and unity.
Lack of national consciousness and unity partly contributed to the defeat of Africans resistances for examples; the Germans easily defeated the Hehe in Tanganyika because the Sangu and Bena collaborated with the Germans. The British also defeated Lobengula in Zimbabwe because chief Lewanyika of the Lozi Kingdom collaboration with the British.
3. Natural hazards
Some African societies were defeated because of their material conditions which made them unable to put up a stiff resistance. These conditions were natural hazards such as diseases. The Maasai of East Africa could not put a stiff resistance because they were suffering from cholera and their cattle had been killed by render pest.
4. Influence of the Missionaries.
The Missionaries had a role to play in the defeat of African resistances. The Missionaries brain washed the minds of the Africans by preaching obedience which reduced African resistance to colonial rule. For example the Buganda in Uganda and the Fante in Nigeria never resisted colonial rule because of the teaching of the Missionaries.
5. Succession disputes.
Succession disputes also contributed to the defeat of African resistances. Succession disputes brought about divisions which made it possible for the colonial powers to side with one group against the other in Buganda, for example, Semei Kakungulu sided with the British to defeat Mwanga.
6. Lack of good fighting techniques.
Lack of good fighting techniques went hand in hand with the absence of strong leadership which was needed to stage a strong resistance. A case in point was the Majimaji resistance which lacked adequate leadership and proper fighting techniques, hence contributing to its defeat by the Germans.
TRANSITION FROM COMPETITIVE CAPITALISM TO MONOPOLY CAPITALISM
Competitive capitalism refers to the second stage of capitalism that existed after industrial revolution in Europe in 1750, where by European nations were competing themselves in Industrial production. This was done in terms of production of raw materials, monopolizing trade and market. Therefore under industrial capitalism there rose bitter struggle/stiff competition among European capitalists for production, whoever in the course of this stage some capitalist were died while others who were able to compete grow richer and reached to a stage of monopoly capitalism, hence in order to survive the capitalists increased labour productivity which was done through introduction of more efficient machines hence competitive capitalism was always progressive because of time and free trade and accelerated to the rise of monopoly capitalism.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPETITIVE CAPITALISM
The following are some of the characteristics of competitive Capitalism.
The following are some of the characteristics of competitive Capitalism.
1. During this period the role of the state was minimal, this was because of the belief of free trade, and this sometimes was called “laissez faire policy”.
2. Most of the enterprises were small and competitive in nature hence there was no monopoly in market, area for investment, getting labor and monopoly of getting raw materials because each enterprise was competing with another to get economic motive.
3. During this period raw materials from Africa were important but not crucial because raw materials were only needed to be used in monopoly companies which had started to monopolize the market, areas for getting labor and raw materials.
4. The tariff policies (trade barriers) were still protective in nature because each nation was still protecting her home market in order to allow merchants to involve in trade at home without any competition from outside merchants.
5. Banks were not controlling production but they were only the agents of payment where by banks provided capitals, loans and credit to the merchants to continue involve themselves in trade for development of capitalism but not these banks but not these bans were involved in production.
6. Competitive capitalism was characterized by the growth of industries where by industries grew specifically for producing manufactured goods which were needed and sold by industrial capitalist in Europe (Britain).
FACTORS FOR TRANSITION FROM COMPETITIVE CAPITALISM TO MONOPOLY CAPITALISM
1. Emergence of monopoly companies that was able to swallow small companies. Due to emergence of big companies with huge amount of capital, the small companies could not fit in the competition hence monopolization of the major economic activities and the decline of competitive capitalism.
2. Export of capital, during this period there emerged big companies which were exported to industries, banks, and companies. These led companies to get double profit which accelerated the rise of monopoly capitalism.
3. Emergence of cut throat competition among the European countries. The stiff competition led weak companies to be swallowed by the strongest among European nations. Example Britain, Japan, France, Italy, etc. Therefore this competition resulted to the strongest to continue in monopoly stage while the weak died in the competitive capitalism.
4. The division of the world among the big imperialist nations which was done at the Berlin conference; this accelerated the colonization of Africa and big capitalist powers were able to get capitalist demands and be able to maximize profits and establish strong monopolistic companies which led them to transform from competitive capitalism.
5. Concentration of production and centralization of capital was another factor for transition from competitive capitalism to monopoly capitalism. Europeans concentrated in both manufacturing of goods and raw materials which led to acquisition of more capital which was invested and reinvested especially in big industries together with big monopolistic companies which enabled them to acquire more profit for trade circulation and for more investments in economic sectors hence transformed the form of capitalism.
6. The rise of philosophical ideas due to high education and research and this led unit almagation of European companies as a way to maximize profit. E.g. Small industries which were established during monopoly capitalism under one merchant was joined together and even the capital from those companies was joined together form a big finance.
7. The Rise of European nationalism. The unification of European nations example the unification of Germany and Italy and the rise of other European nationalism acted as a transition from competitive to monopoly capitalism because the unification expanded market, labor, easy circulation of trade and the nations started to compete among themselves by establishing big companies which all these led to the transition from competitive capitalism to monopoly capitalism.
8. Relate the subsequent division of the world between capitalist alliances with the development of monopoly capitalism.