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LANGUAGE TWO NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL
BASIC CONCEPTS OF LITERATURE
THEORY OF LITERATURE
Is a body of principle that gives a learner the origin development and essential qualities of literature. They examine different definition and treatments with the word literature. They also explain how literary works do differ from other works such as law books, science, mathematics etc.
Literature is a multi – dimensional concept hence there have been various attempts to define the term literature as follows:-
– Literature is the product of human imagination employing language creatively to reflect man’s relationship within his /her environment (shake speare)
– Literature is mirror that reflects the reality of the society. (Nkwera)
– Literature is the use of language in a peculiar way (different from normal language use) in order to reflect social realities through artistic use of language (Gibbon)
– Literature is imaginative and creative writing which uses language and arbitrary assemblage of devices
– Literature is an imitation based on reality of the society.
– Literature is the work of art which use language creatively to express human realities (the universe is the source of these realities to be expressed)
– Literature is the expression of emotion feelings of someone.
Generally, Literature can be defined as any work of art that use language creatively to reflect social realities within the society aiming at educating entertaining, criticizing, conscientious or worming the society? As Literature it use have Universality, artist, work as well as audience
- Key words to consider
– Art (Organization of events, characterization, flow of incidents
– Use language
– Creatively Words
– Social realities
Literature is a product of the society; it therefore attempts to reflect the social activities with an interest to not only entertain but also to educate.
The first intention demands that literature has to be artistic in order to provide entertainment to the consumer, however in order to educate the society, literature must uncover its skills and sexiest ways for remedial changes.
The first intention demands that literature has to be artistic in order to provide entertainment to the consumer, however in order to educate the society, literature must uncover its skills and sexiest ways for remedial changes.
Social realities
In order to accomplish this opinion the work of art must be accordant of the same society it’s talking about. It’s evident therefore that a goods literary work of art is a product of the society, by the outsides, Since literature aims to benefit the society, it has to work upon the daily activities of the society, infect it must be serious commentary, judge and critic of the society.
Words
Words are the brushes to which a literary artist paints the picture of the society.
ART
In defining the word art, two ideas emerge;
- That art is a skill
- That art is an item or a product of creativity
- Art is a skill
This paradigm argues that are the skill used in making or doing different things e.g. the art of basket weaving, the art of tuning a piano, the art of scoring a goal. In this sense there are many arts, infect there are a many arts as there are deliberate specialized activities for human beings to engage in.
Art is used in many other ways. E.g. useful arts this refers to those arts which produce beautiful objects for everyday use. Decorative arts these are arts which produce items for decorations and also for their own use.
The word art is used more specialized way e.g. it is widely used to mean a painting, a novel, music composition to mention a few such activities designed only to product a work of art are after called fine art.
Why Art
Creations of art serve different reasons, for example in human life people have created different tools for cutting, digging, and have needs of special satisfactions things worth looking at or worth hearing. Others want memorable things these need are either formal or recoverable interests.
Formal interests
These are found with people who are interested in order; they enjoy patterns of contrast and balances for
Pre – historic people curved the handles of their hunting knifes in regular pleasing patterns objects in our homes are arranged in regular patterns, today we dress up, we wear jewellery and arrange our dresses in certain ways depending on our interests these are examples of formal interests.
Commemorative interests
Some events and ideas take a very high importance in our religious, social and political life. In different societies people use some formal symbols or ceremonies to make such events memorable, for example, per-historic people used dances and rituals to ensure success at seed time or harvest time, ancient Greeks represented with different symbols, the ideal human politics of strength, courage and beauty in there statues of Gods and goddesses.
Some events and ideas take a very high importance in our religious, social and political life. In different societies people use some formal symbols or ceremonies to make such events memorable, for example, per-historic people used dances and rituals to ensure success at seed time or harvest time, ancient Greeks represented with different symbols, the ideal human politics of strength, courage and beauty in there statues of Gods and goddesses.
Today we mark a marriage with speech songs and ceremonies and therefore give the occasion form in order to mark it memorable.
WORK OF ART
WORK OF ART
An Aesthetic experience
Works of art result from the formal and commemorative coming together, they satisfy our desires for form and at the same time remind us of something we consider when we experience a work of art we do not feel the two separate interests, they join to create a special experience for us. This is aesthetic experience.
Examples of works of Art
- The great epic poem ODYSSEY appeals to as in a way that unites the two interests into one, it is not only a story about basic human problems and a study of the resourcefulness and adaptability of human nature and it is also a cunningly told with suspense and a climax.
- Vincent van Gogh paintings of the sun flower is not just a formal composition of shape and color, it has a bright vividness that stays in our minds as a kind of symbol of nature busting with life.
- Berte Thorvald sen “Shepherd boy” is a delightful marble statue typical of a new-classical style. It vividly shows the beauty of youth just as it captures our imagination thus creating a universe of ideas, works of art may differ widely in the proportions which they combine formal and commemorative interest’s fine arts and literature usually amount to the conclusion that this picture and that poem induce the same mood in a person. The various arts have their individual history and a different internal structure of elements although they are in constant relationship with each other, these relationships are not influences which start from one point and determine evolutions of other arts.
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
A literary work of art cannot survive or even be proper understood without a thought understanding of the language which is its medium of expression. Its use of language as not to be desired than meets the eye. The literature artist concentrates on the books that are thought worthy of preservation as literature, to be studied for their own sake rather than for their extensive value as guide books or political tracts. The language in these books is used in a peculiar way in order to entertain and educate at the same time. There is a difference therefore in the way language is used in literature as oppose to ordinary language use in at list three aspects:-
- Literature language may violate or deviate from the generally observed rules of the language in many different ways.
- A creative writer can use features of the language of past ages or even borrow features belonging to other non-literary uses of language.
- Literature language is well known for its troops/figures of speech like irony and metaphor and therefore is rich in devices compared to ordinary language.
The result of the above factors is that literature work of art is not a simple object but rather a highly complex organization of a stratified character with multiple meanings or relationships.
BEAUTY AND SIGNIFICANCE
Scholars try to describe the two interests in art as those of beauty and significance, they identify the formal interests with desire to make and enjoy beautiful things. People studying art believe that the formal satisfaction of sheer design and the intensity of the commemorative aspect both contribute to beauty.
BEAUTY AND USEFULNESS
Beauty does not depend on usefulness; works of art such as paintings and music have little or no use apart from their value as works of art. We could use a piece of sculpture to hold the door open although its only real use is that it is the sculpture. Other objects such as cups or chairs are designed to perform special functions yet they too are sometimes considered works of art. They may even be exhibited in a museum if they produce aesthetic experiences.
SOCIAL ROLE OF THE ARTIST
By nature, virtual arts like paintings and sculptures involve more physical manual labour than the literary arts. The sculptor or painter has generally more easily assimilated to the traditions of the skilled manual craftsmanship. The poet has tended to be associated with the realm of religious ceremonies and record keeping within or outside the various religious organizations. All in all artists have a role to educate, challenge, revolutionize, entertain and record, these are enjoyed in all sharpers of the social structure.
LITERATURE AND THE OTHER ARTS
The relationships of literature and the other arts are many and complex, sometimes poetry has used inspirations from the other arts. Likewise other works of art may use themes of poetry. The poets have used pieces of sculptures, paintings or even music more often poems have been written with the intention that music should be added and in some cases poets and composers have been one and the same. It is evident therefore that there are some relationships among the various arts types.
HOW LITERARY ARTS DIFFER FROM THE OTHER ARTS
Although all arts are similar from the artistic point of view that serves both commemorative and formal interests, there are several differences between a literary and the other arts. The differences are as follows bellow:-
- LANGUAGE
Literary works of art are presented using language as there medium of presentation. The language used is not the ordinary language which is artistic therefore rich in artistic devices.
- CHARACTERS
Literary artists use characters to relay their message, the characters are artistic creation of the author or the poet and they are the mouth piece of the writer, through these the authors pass the message to the society. The characters also portray the lilies and shortcomings of the people in the society at a given time.
- SETTING
Setting refers to time and place. A literary work of art is set at a certain given period of time. Setting is therefore basically divided into two. First, the temporal setting which depicts the period when the period when the work of art was set (period) this interim affects the language and all the aspects of culture found in the work of art. E.g.: dark and what there. This is because if the work of art depicts the 1960’s it will also depict the aspects of culture of that period and place including language, dress and music to mention just but a few aspects.
Secondly; due the geographic setting, the author will depict the culture of the society shown in work of art to resemble that of the society were the art is set thus if the work of art is portraying the society of fisherman, this setting will dictate the dressing and all the other details found in the work to fit such a society.
TYPES OF LITERATURE
- Oral Literature
- Written Literature
- ORAL LITERATURE
Is the type of Literature presented through the use of mouth it is the primary to the written genre ie it has been into existence long time before the invention of written form. The clement of Oral literature include Legend myth proverbs, saying, Riddles, folktales, Anecdote, fables
LEGEND:
These are the formed stories of the past especially one may not be practically true but of historical troth and perhaps less of supernatural.
These are the formed stories of the past especially one may not be practically true but of historical troth and perhaps less of supernatural.
Eg:- Wangu Wa Makeri (by Bukenya)…..:
These are stories originated in ancient time esp. with focus in idea or belief about the early history of mankind encounters experience as of supernatural . Power and super being creature’s that had power more than human being. It tells the origin of life, create and the meaning of life
These are stories originated in ancient time esp. with focus in idea or belief about the early history of mankind encounters experience as of supernatural . Power and super being creature’s that had power more than human being. It tells the origin of life, create and the meaning of life
FABLES:
These are short stories not based on fact often with animal’s cheater that conveys a moral message. People and inanimate objects one sometimes the central figlire. Fables have to do with supernatural or unusual incident.
These are short stories not based on fact often with animal’s cheater that conveys a moral message. People and inanimate objects one sometimes the central figlire. Fables have to do with supernatural or unusual incident.
ANECDOTE:
These are short, interesting and amusing story about a person or errant. It is a narrated incident based on the life of an important person and should lay elements of truth.
These are short, interesting and amusing story about a person or errant. It is a narrated incident based on the life of an important person and should lay elements of truth.
EPICS:
Are long narrative poem in an elevated style presenting characters of high position in adventures forming an organic whole through their relation to a arbitral heroic figure.
Are long narrative poem in an elevated style presenting characters of high position in adventures forming an organic whole through their relation to a arbitral heroic figure.
RIDDLES:
These are puzzling questions, statement or descriptions especially one intended to test the cleverness of those within to solve them- E.g:- my house has no door “- An egg, We are tree in our family”
These are puzzling questions, statement or descriptions especially one intended to test the cleverness of those within to solve them- E.g:- my house has no door “- An egg, We are tree in our family”
THE FOLKTALES:
These are short narration chanced down through oral tradition, they are popular stories; passed from one generation to the next. These explain / tell the things come to existence the way they are eg. The sun and the Moon (by Bukenya)
These are short narration chanced down through oral tradition, they are popular stories; passed from one generation to the next. These explain / tell the things come to existence the way they are eg. The sun and the Moon (by Bukenya)
SAYINGS:
These are phrases or a statement that expresses something about life that most people believe is wise and true. This induces Idioms and prunes.
These are phrases or a statement that expresses something about life that most people believe is wise and true. This induces Idioms and prunes.
IDIOMS:
Are phrases or sentences in which their meaning is not clear from the creaming of its individual word. Thus it must be learnt as whole unit
Are phrases or sentences in which their meaning is not clear from the creaming of its individual word. Thus it must be learnt as whole unit
– Hit the nail on the head ie go straight to point
– Breaks ones back ie to over work someone
-Take French leave ie to leave without permission
– Beauty is on skin deep ie don’t judge by appearance.
PREVERBS:
Are short artistic wise. Sayings which are meant to worn or educate.
– Birds of some feathers flock together
– Stitch time same nine.
– Every dog has day ie every one has/he/her success ahead
– A bird min hand is too worth in the bush.
TASK:
Comment on the status / position of Oral Literature in Tanzania today.
2. WRITTEN LITERATURE
Is the work of art expressed through written form. It emerged after the invention of written so it is the second to Oral literature.
Written Literature has three GENRES:-
- Novel
- Plays/ Drama
- Poetry
a) THE NOVEL
Is a long work of prose from fiction that contains character in the form of plot normally presents life basing an history and culture of the society in which it is set. It also defined as A long narratives in which characters and events are imaginary. Though events contained in Novels are fictions, they are said to have verisimilitude (realism this is due to the act that incidents that are found in the Novel have some relationship with the real life as experienced by the human being. A person who writes a novel is called, NOVELIST.
A novel (from French Novella Italian novella new) is an extended generally fictional narrative, typically in prose, Until the 18th century the word referred specifically to short functions of love and intrigue as opposed to romances which were epic – length works about lose and adventure. Novels are generally between 60,000 – 200,000 words or 300 – 1300 pages in length.
During the 18th century, the novel adopted features of the old romance and became one of the literary genres. It is today define as must by its ability to become the object of literary accusation demanding artistic merit and a specific literary style, the early novel was basically any story told for its spectacular or reveling instincts. The original environment living on with a typical frame setting – was the entertaining conversation. Stories of grave incidence could just as well augment sermons
Collection of examples facilitated the work of preachers in need of such illustrations. A fable could illustrate a moral conclusion; a short historical reflection could does the same. A competition of genres developed. Tastes and social status were decisive, if one believes on the medieval collections. The working classes loved their own brands of drastic stories, stories of clever cheating, with and the ridicule leveled against hated social groups.
FEATURES OF A NOVEL.
FEATURES OF A NOVEL.
– Novels are presented in narrative form
– They are written in chapters unlike plays which are Written in acts and scenes and poems which are written in stanzas and verses.
– They are written in chapters unlike plays which are Written in acts and scenes and poems which are written in stanzas and verses.
– Navels are meant to read silently, quite contrary from plays which are meant to be performed on stage or poems to be sang.
– A novel has a point of view ie the angle from which the story is told.
b) PLAY / DRAMA
Drama is a work of art is written for the purpose of being acted on stage. Another scholar has defined drama as story telling that uses actors / actress before people’s eyes.
A, person who compose / writes a play is called a PLAYWRIGHT
FEATURES OF DRAMA /PLAY
FEATURES OF DRAMA /PLAY
– When in scripts, drama shows its setting through stage direction which tell the readers when and where something happened. It also shows where and when characters enter and leave,
and it shows different mood of characters
and it shows different mood of characters
– Drama must have dialogue. ie conversation or speech of two or more characters speaking to each other.
– A play must have a conflict that makes it going. These conflicts passes through stages such as exposition, rising action (complication/ confrontation), Climax (point of no return ) , falling
action, resolution (denouement / deinu: mo/
action, resolution (denouement / deinu: mo/
– Most modem plays have elements of realism that means what an artist say/do related to everyday experience.
– The stages of a
play have something that characterizes the mood of the play. Normally a song that is sung all over the play is to affect the emotional of the viewers or readers. The choice
of tithe song will depend on the subject matter of the play.
play have something that characterizes the mood of the play. Normally a song that is sung all over the play is to affect the emotional of the viewers or readers. The choice
of tithe song will depend on the subject matter of the play.
– Plays have many theories like novels do.
Terms used in Drama/play
- Scene: Which can be defined as the smallest unit in a play? a scenes has one major event. Thus a play is made up of scenes which combine to form act.
- Act is a major division of a play made of Scenes sometimes you may find a play which has neither scenes nor acts.
Each act is made up of more than one scene normally the end of one scene normally the end of one scene or act is marked by a curtain
- Curtain: When the actors/ actress leave the stage they go behind the curtain. The rising and the lowering of the entrain marks the beginning or end of the scene or act
- Stage direction: These are words that are introduced before any action in a play with the intention of making readers imagine they are viewing the actual performance on stage. They show the setting of an act or a scene. They also show the mood of the actors/actress. Stage directions show leaving and entering of characters.
NB: Stage directions are normally directed by using the words in italics so as to make those word unique.
TYPES OF DRAMA / PLAYS
There are four types of play, as shown here under
i) Tragedy:
Is a play deals with a serious action. Tragedy plays present terrifying events and existence suffering. The source of tragic plays comes from royal (events presenting kings and Queens and
great person. Also tragic plays deals with Noble person.
great person. Also tragic plays deals with Noble person.
It has hero / heroine who becomes engaged in a conflict, experiencing great suffering and finally dies or is defeated or punished in other words we can tell it a play that end sorrowful.
ii)Comedy:
This type of play is aimed to make people laugh. It is argued that comedy come into existence because tragedy was considered to be threatening so Viewers could not learn because they could
concentrate in pitying the hero/heroin suffering due to tragic action.Thus they introduced comedy to make people enjoy instead of tragedy.
This type of play is aimed to make people laugh. It is argued that comedy come into existence because tragedy was considered to be threatening so Viewers could not learn because they could
concentrate in pitying the hero/heroin suffering due to tragic action.Thus they introduced comedy to make people enjoy instead of tragedy.
Comedy achieves the purpose of laughter by employing wit (cleaver/amusing) and humor (funny usually has happy ending.
– Comedy ridicule the weakness of human nature
– Comedy criticize and aims to correct human conduct
-Usually comedy is exaggeration in nature.
-Comedy arises from improbable people placed in probable situation.
– Comedy ridicule the weakness of human nature
– Comedy criticize and aims to correct human conduct
-Usually comedy is exaggeration in nature.
-Comedy arises from improbable people placed in probable situation.
iii) Tragic – Comedy:-
This is a Mixture of tragedy and comedy it is play that employs a plot like that of tragedy but ends happily the way comedy ends. In tragic comedy it is the denouement that show happiness. Thus tragic– comedy has both feature of comedy and those of tragedy only because there are
aspects that appeal to laughter and those that appeal to sadness or pity.
aspects that appeal to laughter and those that appeal to sadness or pity.
iv) Melo drama:
It is kind of drama which uses musing to heighten events and it uses stock characters (characters taken from the past) .
The major aim of melodrama is to present confrontation between god and evils. Also it aims to make human being do good things which are acceptable in the society.
Usually in melodrama there is violence on the stage and usually the good one win.
v) Mixed form.
This is a contemporary type of drama which includes all the types mentioned. This has been so due to development and changes and it is because of the freedom of form, freedom of style as well as freedom of techniques.
HOW TO WRITE A PLAY:
– Make sure that your play shows characters who are talking to each other. That means a play must be in dialogue form.
– As it is in scripts. It must be supported by stage direction so that readers my know where various incidents take place.
– Stage direction will help the reader to see that the character enters or leave the stage.
NB: Words that shows form stage direction are normally in italic form and in brackets These words help the reader to understand what/when & where the events takes place in the play.
- When the play/drama is performed on the stage; Stage direction is replaced by actual activities that the viewer can see and heard. Example things like closing and opening the door, coughing can be seen and headed.
– Know the type of play you are composing
– Before all you must have an idea ie all about the play
– Make sure your play have all the features of being a play.
TASK:
- What are the features of a play?
- Differentiate comedy from tragedy
- What is the difference between a novel and a play?
- Plays are said to have more power of educating; criticizing and building awareness in their respective society and the world at large than other literary genres Do you agree?why?
C) POETRY
(From the Greet “poles – making or creating) is a form of art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in additional to in lie because of ostensible meaning.
Poetry may be written independently, as discrete poems, or may occur in conduction with other arts, as in poetic drama, hymns or lyrics.
Poetry and discussions of its have a long history early attempts to define poetry such as Aristotle’s poetics focused on the of speech in enter, dram, song and comedy. After attempt
concentrated on features such as repetition and rhyme and aesthetics which distinguish poetry has sometimes being more loosely defined as a fundamental creative act using language.
concentrated on features such as repetition and rhyme and aesthetics which distinguish poetry has sometimes being more loosely defined as a fundamental creative act using language.
Poetry often uses particular forms and conversions to expand the utterly meaning of the words, or to evoke emotional or essential responses. Desires used to achieve musical or incantatory
effects. Poets use of ambiguity, symbolism and other stylish elements of poetic diction after leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations similarly metaphor and simile create resonance
between otherwise. Paraclete images layering of meanings, forming connection previously not perceived kindred forms of resonance may exist between individual senses in their pattens of chime
or rhythm.
effects. Poets use of ambiguity, symbolism and other stylish elements of poetic diction after leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations similarly metaphor and simile create resonance
between otherwise. Paraclete images layering of meanings, forming connection previously not perceived kindred forms of resonance may exist between individual senses in their pattens of chime
or rhythm.
Some forms of poetry are specific to particular cultures and genres, responding to the characteristics of the language in which the poet writes while readers accustomed to identifying it’s as being written in rhyming lines and regular meter, there are traditions such as those of Dufu and Beowulf if that use other approaches to achieve rhythm and euphony, In today globalized world, poets often borrow styles, techniques and forms from diverse cultures and languages.
In addition to specific forms of poems, poetry is often thought of in terms of different genes and sub genres. A poetic gene is generally a tradition or classification of poetry based on the subject matter, style or other broader ternary characteristics. Some commentators’ views gore as natural forms of iterative others view the study of gene as the study of how difference works related and refer to other works.
The term poetry has been defined differently according to different perceptive of various scholars.
-Poetry is the writing that formulates a concentrated, imaginative awareness of experience chosen and arranged to create a specific emotional response through its meaning sound and rhythm. (wasters new international Dictionary G &C Merriam Co . 1961 3rd ed)
– Poetry is an imaginative work that normally presents experiences or ideas with special reference to emotions using language characterize by imaginary and rhythmical sound.
– Poetry is literary genre that is rich in figurative expression as well as musical features.
-Poetry is a literary gene in verse (line)form language more creatively and artistically than other literacy works.
-Poetry is a metrical compassion characterized by strong imagination, emotion, significant meaning and appropriate language.
